What is War?

 In simple language, according to Miriam Webster Dictionary–a dictionary that was established in 1828, war is defined as “a state of usually open and declared armed hostile conflict between states or nations.”[1] The penumbration (from penumbra) of ancient wars has been common among historians. One example is the battle between the Athenians and the Spartans and it was Thucydides who was the first to narrate the nature of that war.[2]

Thucydides on Strategy of war is mainly on the Peloponnesian War. Regarded as the father of realism, Thucydides was a historian and among the elites of Athens.[3] Another devastating war was fought between Alexander the Great III and the Persian King Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela when Darius ruled the Achaemenid Empire.[4] Born in 356 BC, the tutor of Alexander was Aristotle while his father Philip II of Macedon who made the Macedonian army the strongest force of that era taught him everything related to war strategies. Prior to the rise of the Macedonians, the Greek states of Athens, Sparta and Thebes had a strong stranglehold on the Mediterranean Sea. However, after the assassination of Philip II of Macedon, the rise of Alexander the Great III turned the tables upside down.

In the war between the Macedonians and the Persians, there is something worth narrating since the two strategies of the two armies who were in great opposition could reveal why the Macedonians defeated the mighty Persians.

Despite the two armies fought face-to-face, the Macedonians applied a unique tactic that almost decimated the Persians. While the Persians fought in standing positions shooting arrows, shields and javelins, the Macedonians stood on their knees such that all their shields were joined together and from a distance, they resembled one massive shield. When the Persians shot at the Macedonians, their weapons fell on the Macedonian shields and surprisingly, no Macedonian soldier got hurt or killed. In retaliation, the Macedonians shot back and many Persians perished at the battlefield. Alexander was known for riding his famous horse Bucephalus that was named after a city called Bucephala. Finally, the Persians were defeated. This strategy was another narration to the professor I previously mentioned.

Even diseases have modern war strategies and they include Chemotherapy and oncolytic virotherapy.[5] But military war strategies are quite different for diseases spread by alien cells and human altercations are incomparable in concept. There are offensive wars that are meant to recover missing, stolen, or abrogated rights. In modern political history, wars may be defensive or offensive.

Thucydides recollection of the Peloponnesian War disclosed frightful state of the Arab-Israeli conflict of 1947. International politics is a world imperial system[6] where governments control those it has contact with. One example is the formidable Western Roman Empire. In the sixteenth century, Spain tried to imitate the Roman supremacy while France followed in the seventeenth century though both failed miserably in their attempts to galvanize imperial domination of other countries.[7] Modern historians are of the opinion that empires usually last 240 years with the last one being the British Empire. In the nineteenth century, the British Empire tried its best for global supremacy and it materialized by sharing its global dominions with other stronger states to avoid loss of control of its grabbed expansive landmasses including oceans and seas and lakes and rivers. That’s why the British Empire had the largest global landmass and waters during its era. While Britain was a global empire, ancient world empires like the Roman, Sumerian, Persian and Chinese were in fact, regional empires and despite their fallacies and wrong thoughts that they ruled the entire world, they remained out of harm’s way in conflict with other empires of equal measure mainly due to lack of communication.

Some powers remained in wars of invasions for long periods while others fought to recover territories. Besides wars on invasions, there were wars of interventions. While peaceful coexistence is the best way to cherish harmonious relationships among people of differing political ideas, again, beginning from the era when Cain killed his younger brother Abel over jealousy and other impervious to reason psychological defects, at times, war is a necessity. Standing up for the rights for the rights of the defenseless is a major human obligation. In modern times, we have seen the rise of frightful or peaceful demonstrations and movements such as the civil rights and human rights movements have become a force to reckon with. Coups and guerilla movements have been common in many African countries and South America in contemporary history. The most recent coups happened in the nations of Niger and Gabon in Africa–though peaceful but foreign orchestrated. Citing “deteriorating security situation and bad governance”, Niger soldiers took over the presidential palace in July 2023 and then detained President Mohamed Bazoum.[8] Before Niger, the West African nation of Burkina Faso experienced the same fate. Blaming  President Roch Kabore for failing to contain the growing Islamic militants, the military ousted him in January 2022. In Mali, in August 2020, aggrieved colonels who were led by Colonel Assimi Goita, overthrew President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita. The following year in April 2021, while visiting troops who were in the battlefield fighting rebels, President Idriss Deby got killed and his son General Mahamat Idriss Deby, a polygamous man with three wives, was given an 18-month transition by the soldiers who were behind his father’s killing. To date, he remains the President of Chad.

There’s military theory that defines and informs how war and warfare are conducted.[9] In modern military history, it is a requirement for military officers to have a glimpse of military science. To better understand how warfare is conducted, the theory mainly deals with normative and explanatory analyses, where normative concentrates on behavioral phenomena while explanatory deals with the casual aspects of war. Despite military theory being multi-disciplinary, it deals with three questions:

1.      What are the natural causes of war?

2.      What are the characteristics of war?

3.      How is military power or warfare applied to attain victory?[10]

In summarizing war tactics, the major factors that make it a reality constitute the following:

1.      Effective Statesmanship–The total application of dynamic military and state leadership as it relates to war. It is of vital importance for the leader of the state to be aware of the military leader’s war applications before embarking on the defensive or invasion. On the other hand, top military leaders must discuss and listen to the officers fighting on the ground, in the air or in major and minor waters.

2.      Strategy–implies properly organizing and directing select groups to the theater of war either for the sake of defense or invasion. Having war hardened and able-bodied men and women who can strive to survive longer periods in the battlefields is a requirement. Depending on the type and kind of war being fought, the military usually applies either a platoon, company or a division. A platoon could be headed by a sergeant or senior sergeant while a company could be headed by a captain, a battalion could be headed by colonels, a brigadier is head of a brigade, while the military officer in charge of a division could be the rank of a major general who is assisted by two brigadiers. Usually, as for divisions, even though it applies to developed countries with large militaries, a division could either be airborne, armored, infantry and mountain divisions. In a nutshell, a military strategy has been conclusively divided into 5 categories: extermination, exhaustion, annihilation, intimidation, and subversion.

3.      Grand tactics–is an exclusive modern military tactic or strategy each opposing party applies to emerge victorious. Some of the military tactics applied to this day are almost 17 in number, even though they could exceed according to differing military sources: 1. infiltration tactics, 2. Flanking maneuver, 3. Peaceful penetration, 4. Guerilla warfare, 5. Marching fire 6. Rapid deployment, 7. Ambush, 8. Skirmisher, 9. Frontal assault, 10. Penetration or infiltration, 11. Envelopment, 12. Basic drill, 13. Encirclement 14. Raid, 15. Hammer and Anvil, 16. Individual movement techniques, 17. Bull horn formation.

4.      Logistics–it is the art of moving modern military and their heavy machineries that could be a composition of transport planes and faster than sound jet fighters, Aircraft Carriers (A/C) and other warships such as auxiliaries, battleships, destroyers, and frigates for long distance travels. Other heavy carriers such as heavy trucks deliver soldiers to specific locations before getting instructions from their commanding officer. The heavy trucks could be loaded with armaments such as machine guns, modern automatic rifles, shoulder- held grenades

5.      Engineering–that is the attacking of defensive fortifications. This fighting criteria requires sophisticated application of the necessary war implements that could be used to cause total devastation since a fortification is like a military barrack that is heavily guarded. Scorched earth bombing is a modern warfare that is also known as saturation bombing or carpet bombing. Destroying forts or all types of military structures such as bridges, roads, farms, reconnaissance and satellite radars, lighthouses used by ships, ports or harbors plus the jetties and their anchored ships, mooring buoys, and oil refineries together with every type of communication installations that sustains the enemy, is part of the scorched earth bombings. Ancient Romans also used the scorched earth tactic against their enemies to cut off water supplies and farming produces.

6.      Minor tactics–it is the art of fighting individuals or small units and was coined in 1780 by a French military author whose name was Jacques-Antoine-Hippolyte de Guibert.

Even though they fought barbaric enemies around their borders, regional empires of that era were incomparable to modern global empires who are known to have advanced communication and technological equipment or armaments. During the eras of regional powers, fighting in battlefields could have been headed by generals whose army were warriors and not soldiers in contemporary times. Knight warriors fought while on horses and their main weapons were bronze spears and bows and arrows. In modern times, soldiers are now known as modern standing army that are equipped with advanced military equipment that are no match for the warriors of past regional powers. Modern armies are known for precision and guidance when dealing with the enemy. While the major means of transportation for the past regional powers’ armies were horses, modern armies have various types of transportation that can deliver them to the battlefields within short times. They include heavy transport military planes that can carry all the required logistics that combine the soldiers themselves and military hardware such as helicopters and jet fighters, armored personnel carriers and tanks, Undoubtedly, the first person to use copper was Prophet Suleiman as stated by Chapter 34 that is Sabba, verse 12 below:

وَلِسُلَیۡمَـٰنَ ٱلرِّیحَ غُدُوُّهَا شَهۡرࣱ وَرَوَاحُهَا شَهۡرࣱۖ وَأَسَلۡنَا لَهُۥ عَیۡنَ ٱلۡقِطۡرِۖ وَمِنَ ٱلۡجِنِّ مَن یَعۡمَلُ بَیۡنَ یَدَیۡهِ بِإِذۡنِ رَبِّهِۦۖ وَمَن یَزِغۡ مِنۡهُمۡ عَنۡ أَمۡرِنَا نُذِقۡهُ مِنۡ عَذَابِ ٱلسَّعِیرِ ۝١

And to Solomon [We subjected] the wind–its morning [journey was that of] a month - and its afternoon [journey was that of] a month, and We made flow for him a spring of [liquid] copper. And among the jinn were those who worked for him by the permission of his Lord. And whoever deviated among them from Our command–We will make him taste of the punishment of the Blaze (Translation, Umm Muhammad, Saheeh International.) Some translators of the Qur’an mention brass instead of copper.

The 2005 archeological discovery of Khirbat en-Nahas that is Arabic and translates to “ruins of copper” found in Faynan District in Jordan, is a testament to Suleiman’s ownership of copper mines as stated by the above verse from the Qur’an. The new discovery contravenes previous claims by archeologist Nelson Glueck whose guesswork surveys in the 1930s asserted that he discovered the ruins of Faynan/Edom. It was in the 1980s when a consensus agreed that the Bible was edited in the 5^th century BCE.[11] It is now evident that seeking knowledge is not only exclusive to traveling through the earth but searching for past generations through archeological research. Archeologists convincingly point to the existence of the discovered copper mines to around 9-10 centuries BCE. Since not everyone is able to travel through the earth due to financial restraints, disabilities, and other factors, those with access to smartphones, computers, kindles and other modern gadgets that can access the internet have the chance to travel through the earth with ease.

World imperial system aside, the second form of imperial system was the feudal system or feudalism that evolved in Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire and it entailed political obligations to feudal lords. In the era of feudal Europe, intermarriage between different societies was a common factor. Even though there were feudal conflicts in the era of European feudalism, they were minor conflicts that could not be compared to modern territorial encounters for the aftermath of the repercussions were minor in context.

The third type of global conflict is the anarchic system of states. The absence of a stronger central government that would keep law and order and ensure states maintain peace and stability could be attributed to the presence of the anarchic system. A few examples of anarchism include the wars that transpired between the ancient Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta. Another form of anarchism among states epitomizes the fifteenth-century Italy of Machiavelli. Dynastic family rule at times created conflicts like those of China and India in the fifth century B.C.E. After the collapse of the Somali central government in the early 1990s, anarchy prevailed for decades after warlords took over the regional helms, at times creating what resembled anarchism and feudalism. The same applied to Lebanon in the 1970s.[12] Regarding the most recent New World Order, according to Thucydides and contemporary scholars, alacritous power transfers are the major causes of unanticipated preponderance influence and great power conflict.[13]

With fascism coming to fore in 1909–a form of brutal leadership that was coined by Benito Mussolini of Italy, it gained momentum during World War II, especially among some European countries. A formal style of self-emulation, self-aggrandizement and a form of superiority complex that elevated a select race over others, fascism was preceded by Italian trade unions that flourished between 1904 and 1914. While much has been written about fascism, in essence, it dominated Italy’s politics for only six years.[14]

Some Muslim commentators of the Qur’an assume Alexander the Great was Dhul al-Qarnayn mentioned in Surah Al-Kahf, ayahs 83-101. Likewise, some are of the opinion that he was Cyrus the Great. However, Dhul Al-Qarnayn was a believer who built an iron wall that still remains undiscovered to date. As for Alexander the Great, his remains that have been preserved in a sarcophagus that resemble those of Ancient Egyptians, is at the Museum of Istanbul Archeology in Turkey. Taking over power in 326 B.C. at age 20 after the assassination of his father Philip II of Macedon, Alexander the Great created the largest empire that stretched from Greece to northwestern India.[15]

After his death, his expansive empire was divided in to four regions. His four generals were Ptolemy, Cassander, Antigonus, and Seleucus. Perhaps, the most famous of the four were Ptolemy who took over Egypt and Seleucus who was famous for the Seleucid Empire. The most significant strategy applied by Alexander the Great was the mythological Greek concept of “Homonoia” which implied unity and since his teacher was Aristotle, one major ideology he instilled in the young Alexander was “treat Greeks as friends but non-Greeks as animals.”[16] With Homonoia being the Greek goddess of order and unity, treating non-Greeks as animals is in reference to the Barbarians. Before the death of Alexander, in Babylon that was the capital of Mesopotamia–death that is attributed to either malaria or typhoid in 323 B.C., he had already defeated Darius III of Persia (320-323 BC).[17] Knowing that he would be a victim of retribution for instilling knowledge that contravened the philosophical thoughts of the other societies that were mistreated by the Macedonians and Greeks, Aristotle had no other option but to abandon the collapsing Alexandrian empire and flee to Greece.

The destruction caused by the Mongols cannot be compared even to the man known as Dajjal–a disbeliever mentioned in the Qur’an who will appear at the end of time, because Dajjal will not harm his followers, however, as for the Mongols, they did not even spare those who submitted to them. It was the era of the Islamic Caliphate of Abbasid when the Mongols started their onslaught. By then, the Abbasids composed of fragments of Muslim cantons because, by that time, a formidable expansive empire known as the Khwarizmi ruled all over the current nations that end with ‘stan’ such as Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkistan, Pakistan, plus Iran and others.[18] In the past, the Tatars and Mongols were two different clans that were at war with each other. The merciless Genghis Khan once received 70 delegates but instead of hosting them, ordered his aides to cook them alive in massive water boilers. The remorseless Genghis Khan once murdered his half-brother Bekhter over hunting spoils. His mom taught Genghis Khan many tactics related to survival in the harsh climatical landscape and how to make alliances with others.

In Russia, almost a decade ago, Imperial, Soviet and post-Soviet historiography depicted Islam as one-sided and chauvinistic because of the Orthodox Church’s attempts to elevate its doctrines as superior to Islam, however, that ideology has been misleading and the tides are now turning towards Islamic morals and values that are being considered far more outstanding. In modern history, it seems Russia is more inclined to elevating Islamic history in schools due to the schisms it has with the Western Powers over Ukraine.

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[1] https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/war. Retrieved September 6, 2022.

[2] The Landmark Thucydides, ed. Robert B. Strassler (NY: Touchstone, 1996) 3.

[3] Nye & Welch. (2011). Understanding Global Conflict and Cooperation: An Introduction to Theory and History. Longman, ISBN-13: 978-0-205-77874-4.

[4] Roos, D. (September 9, 2019).  How Alexander the Great Conquered the Persian Empire.  https://www.history.com/news/alexander-the-great-defeat-persian-empire. Retrieved June 4, 2022. the Persian superpower.

[5] Nguyen, A., Ho, L., & Wan, Y. (2014). Chemotherapy and oncolytic virotherapy: advanced tactics in the war against cancer. Frontiers in oncology, 4, 145.

[6] Ibid, Nye & Welch, P. 2

[7] Ibid, Nye & Welch, P. 3

[8] Compiled by Hereward Holland. Reuters (August 30, 2023). Recent coups in West and Central Africa. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/recent-coups-west-central-africa-2023-08-30/

[9] Angstrom, Jan and, Widen, J.J. (2015). Contemporary Military Theory: The Dynamics of War. New York: Routledge. pp. 4–9. ISBN 9780203080726.

[10] Lider, Julian (1980). "Introduction to Military Theory". Cooperation and Conflict. XV: 151–168 – via JSTOR.

[11] King Solomon's Copper Mines? Source: the University of California–San Diego. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/10/081027174545.html

[12] Ibid, Nye & Welch, P. 3

[13] Ibid, Nye & Welch, P. 317

[14] Rocco, A. (1926). The political doctrine of fascism. Int'l Conciliation, 11, 393.

[15] Bloom, Jonathan M.; Blair, Sheila S. (2009) The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture: Mosul to Zirid, Volume 3. (Oxford University Press Incorporated, 2009), 385; "[Khojand, Tajikistan]; As the easternmost outpost of the empire of Alexander the Great, the city was renamed Alexandria Eschate ("furthest Alexandria") in 329 BCE."

[16] Mauriac, Henry M. de (January 1949). "Alexander the Great and the Politics of "Homonoia"". Journal of the History of Ideas. University of Pennsylvania Press. 10 (1): 104–114. doi:10.2307/2707202.

[17] Burger, Michael (2008). The Shaping of Western Civilization: From Antiquity to the Enlightenment. University of Toronto Press. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-55111-432-3.

[18] Sheekh Mustafe Xaaji Ismaaciil (September 7, 2021). Taariikhdii Tartaarka oo Dhammesytiran. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JagrWUhVi_U. Retrieved August 9, 2022.