Friday, October 14, 2016
BOOK REVIEWS: COMPARISONS AND CONTRASTS
Summarized herein in the form of an
essay is a review of two books written by two distinguished authors of European
origin. The books, Eternal Egypt: the
Civilization of Egypt from Earliest Times to Conquest by Alexander the Great[i] by
Frenchman Pierre Montet translated from the original French by Doreen Weightman
and Africa: a Biography of the Continent[ii] by Anglo-Saxon, John Reader.
In his book, Africa: A Biography of the Continent, John Reader, eulogizes the
prevalence of domesticated plants and animals, technological innovation, the
establishment of villages and increasing level of social interdependence in the
now empty and waterless Sahara desert even before the pyramids were built
(Reader, p. 151). On the other hand, he articulately and meritoriously adduces
evidences regarding the cultivation of food-crops such as wheat, barley, peas,
and lentils along the Nile River despite these crops being cultivated earlier some
9,000 years ago in the “fertile crescent” of the Near East in reference to “the
land between the two rivers”, formerly in the ancient nation of Mesopotamia and
currently in the modern state of Iraq. Thus, cultivation of indigenous African
plants did not begin in Egypt
but rather in the south, an indication of the ancient nation of Nubia .
Nubia , a vast land
straddling the Nile valley to the south of Egypt
was once a colony of Egypt .
Both authors unanimously confirm the colonization of Nubia
by Egypt .
Pierre Montet further explicates how Nubians had their own form of arts and
crafts and at the same time borrowed Egyptian artistic traditions (Montet, p.
118).[iii]
Rich in natural resources, Nubia was, for over 1,000 years, a major
supplier of gold, ivory, timber, animal products, and slaves to Egypt until the
emergence of powerful Nubian rulers who instituted a centralized authority that
would have severe repercussions on the dwindling pharaonic empires. The arrival
of powerful invading Assyrian armies wielding weapons of iron[iv]
eventually led to the collapse of the once powerful Cushitic kingdom in Nubia . Both
authors acknowledge the majesty of the civilization that thrived in Meroe . “Yet the Kingdom
of Meroe can be given credit for having carried Egyptian civilization further
south than the pharaohs themselves had ever succeeded in doing”, says so Pierre
Montet [v]
while John Reader concludes its downfall accordingly: “Meroe was effectively an
expression of Egyptian civilization rooted in what the pharaohs had called the
land of punt-indigenous black Africa.” [vi]
The absence of genuine
documentation, as Montet claims, is convincing evidence that Egyptians did not
reach the confluence of the two Niles .
Perhaps, by the two Niles , the author is referring
to the two tributaries the Blue Nile originating at Lake Tana in Ethiopia and the White Nile which originates in Lake Victoria and is at the confluence of the Bahr
al-Ghazal and Bahr al-Jabel Rivers.
At least the two authors agree on
the name “punt” to which they separately refer to as “the land of the God”
(Montet, p. 120) and “God’s land” (Reader, p. 196). On the contrary, the
authors fail to agree on the exact location of punt in our modern world map. Pierre
Montet suggestively assumes the location of punt to have been in the Bay of Hafun
figuratively pointing it to the south of Cape Guardafui Africa
and Arabia Felix respectively.
Pierre Montet, despite employing
persuasive historical and scientific research methodologies gained from his many
years of distinguished career as an Egyptologist and his accumulated experience
during work at the German Archaeological Institute of Berlin, fails to garner
convincing consensus to uncovering the validity of the Land of Punt Sudan .”[vii] Several
African tribes and states lay claim to the historical Cush kingdom.
Most notably, Somalis, Amhara, Tigre , Nubians, Oromo,
and Sudanese-Arabs place profound hereditary and historical inclination to the
Cushitic kingdom of old. Currently, in the modern state of Somalia, there is a
region known as Puntland located on the eastern corner of Somalia bordering the
Red Sea and closest the Gulf of Aden where frankincense and myrrh -the two most
prominent products sought after by ancient Egyptian pharaohs abundantly grow in
the wild to this day.
Whichever claim is true; our
reliance on historical inscriptions found in the tombs and pyramids of Nubia and Egypt and information gathered from
archeological excavations should be enough to serve as concrete and compelling
evidence for the moment simply for educational purposes until novel exposures
reveal otherwise in the future. What amuses the skeptical reader is the
paragraph in John Reader’s book that states, “the concept of the Nile as a
corridor through which the civilizing influence were conveyed to sub-Saharan
Africa is the basis of an essentially Eurocentric interpretation of African
history, implying that Africans were incapable of developing their own versions
of civilization. It has an appealing simplicity, but is contradicted by the
evidence.”[viii]
(Reader, p.195).
In one way one or the other, the author himself seems not to
the point as regards whether Africans were civilized or not. The judge who
could arbitrate on the flimsy and much-debated issue of who-was-who in African
civilization is the infant and tender baby archeology whose distinct brushes
and micro-blades have failed to go beyond the borders of America , North Africa, and Europe .
John Reader reports that, according to the high official Henu, the expedition
was undertaken on behalf of Montuhotep III c.1975 BC. On the other hand, Pierre
Montet states that the ships were built in Chaldea and that they “sailed down
the Euphrates to the Persian Gulf, went round the enormous Arabian Peninsula
and eventually reached the land
of Punt Red Sea
coast. (Reader p. 196)
[i] Pierre Montet, Eternal Egypt: The Civilization of Egypt from Earliest
Times to Conquest by Alexander the Great, 5 Upper Saint Martin’s Lane, London
[ii] John Reader, Africa: A Biography of
the Continent, Alfred A. Knopf, New
York
[iii] Ibid. (Montet, p. 118)
[iv] Ibid. (Reader 197)
[v] Ibid. (Montet, p. 120)
[vi] Ibid (Reader p. 199)
[vii] Ibid (Reader, p. 196)
[viii] Ibid (Reader p. 195)
[ix] Ibid (Monetet p. 124)
EARLY HISTORY: A BOOK REVIEW
Eternal
Egypt
by Pierre Montet-Translated from the French by Doreen Weightman
I. The first chapter begins with a
description of the Nile valley in prehistoric
times and the
sweeping
changes it has gone through until the arrival of the first Europeans.
A.
The oldest flora known to ancient Egyptians was the
barley (iot) and emmer-wheat (boti).
B.
The most prominent tree par excellence that grew in the villages, at cross-roads, and on
the edges of the desert was the sycamore.
C.
Famous Egyptian fauna in Neolithic times included the
elephant, the giraffe, and the python.
D.
Egypt
has been synonymous with plagues, epidemics, floods, locust invasions, lice,
frogs, mosquitoes, flies, and hail in historical times.
II. Traces of tools found in Egypt
by geologists Sandford and Arkell date from early
Abbevillian period to the Mousterian
period. [1]
A.
The four races that lived in Egypt
in prehistoric times were the remtu
who were the Egyptians themselves, the Amu who had Asiatic features, the
Nehesiu who were black and lived south of Egypt ,
and lastly the Timihu who lived west of Egypt and were closely related to
the Asiatic in profile.
B.
Egypt
was a meeting-point for different races in prehistoric times as can be seen in
surviving statues that display different characteristics of human types.
C.
Though Egypt
had her own dwarfs, the Kings and the rich brought extra dwarfs from the
distant land of Punt
D.
In terms of population numbers and according to
Herodotus, there were twenty-thousand highly populated towns during the reign
of Amasis. [2]
III. In chapter 3, the author defines
Pharaoh as a literal translation of the Egyptian expression
Per-aa
which is in reference to the great house or in other words pertaining to the
royal
palace.
A.
Pharaonic kings were above ordinary mortals,
mummification ceremonies took seventy days, and that coronation celebrations
were signals for great rejoicing.
B.
Newly enthroned kings were crowned in the palace of the
departed father until the new sovereign king constructed his own palace.
C.
Egyptian kings
supervised the massive construction of the tombs that served as their final
resting abodes.
D.
Egyptian dynasties experienced assassinations and
plots.
IV. Egyptian pharaohs considered
themselves to be masters of two lands and that everything
in Upper and Lower
Egypt including people, livestock, buildings, lands, tools, and
even
furniture belonged to them.
A.
Kings of the Old Kingdom
wielded considerable powers and oversaw powerful administrative systems.
B.
During the days when Egypt was divided into two parts,
following the examples of the Greeks, the country experienced boundaries that
came to be referred to as nomes each displaying a distinct emblem.
C.
As noted by
Hesiod, Egyptians of his time made pictures and inscriptions of everyday work
on their tombs symbolizing a kind of concrete encyclopedia of Egyptian life.[3]
D.
A distinct community who went about their work naked or
wearing only a belt did most of the hunting and fishing in ancient Egypt .
V. Besides the two lands-Upper and Lower Egypt ,
the Pharaoh was also the Sovereign of the
Nine Bows-in reference to a
confederation of peoples that fell under the domain of the
Pharaoh.
A.
The military resources of the Egyptians during the New Kingdom comprised of mercenaries and prisoners of war
while Akhenaton’s personal bodyguards included Nubians, Libyans, and Syrians.
B.
Byblos which was part of
the eastern nations was the most noteworthy trading partner of Egypt from the
time Khasekhemui, the last king of the Second Dynasty, until the Ptolemaic era.
C.
In search of incense, Queen Hatshepsut sailed to the Land of Punt
D.
Amazingly, during the Fifth Dynasty, the Greeks and
Cretans lived primitive lives.
VI. Ancient Egyptians had a variety of
gods often shared by the array of nomes that
subdivided the kingdoms.
A.
The most notable of these gods were Neith, Thoth,
Hathor, Seth, Horus, Osiris, Amun-Ra and Ibis.
B.
Every important Egyptian god had altars managed by
priests who upon their deaths were succeeded by their sons.
C.
Egyptian gods were responsible for the protection of
their devotees against illness, against their enemies, and other external
forces.
D.
The kings’ duties to the gods included building
temples, seeing to their upkeep, and providing the means whereby the offering
tables could be constantly replenished.
VII. Because Egyptians worshipped the
dead; they gave them all the necessary attention as
they did for their kings.
A.
The intensification of funerary construction took
greater strides at the beginning of the Third Dynasty as stone took the place
of brick.
B.
The construction of mammoth pyramids dotted the
Egyptian landscape in the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties with special attention
given to the Valley of the Dead and
the Valley of the Living.
C.
The tombs of the queens, high-ranking officials, and
courtiers were low, smaller buildings that were smaller in dimensions.
D.
Ancient Egyptians conceived the idea of the judging of
the dead before they were allowed entry into the next world.
VIII. With the absence of writing on the
Neolithic or Amratian tombs, the respected
Author is of the view that hieroglyphic
signs were invented as early as the Chalcolothic
Period.
A.
In ancient Egypt , the occupation of a scribe
was the finest of all professions for scribes were employed in the temples, in
the main administrative departments, in prisons, and in the offices of
governors and magistrates.
B.
The first literary genre practiced by the Egyptians was
the collections of ‘instructions’ first written by the professional writer
Imhotep, now lost.
C.
According to the Greeks, ancient Egyptians were
absolutely eloquent and remarkably versed in mathematics, astronomy, and
medicine.
D.
Medical science was practiced at Memphis thus giving Egyptian doctors a high
standing throughout the whole of the ancient world.
IX. Ancient Egypt’s earliest known artist
was Imhotep as architecture, sculpture, drawing,
and design continued to evolve
until his time.
A.
Enthusiastic patrons of the arts in the New Kingdom included Queen Hatshepsut, Amenophis III,
Akhenaton, Seti I, and Ramses the Great.
B.
The names of the artists who meticulously did the
dedicatory inscriptions on the temples remain anonymous.
C.
Egyptians started to build monuments entirely out of
stone at the beginning of the Third Dynasty.
D.
Ancient Egyptian arts were influenced by the natural
world as can be seen from the inscriptions on the tombs, monuments, and
pyramids of ancient kings.
X. The final chapter of the book is
dedicated to those who had dealings with the Egyptians:
The Hebrews, the Greeks, and the
Romans.
A.
The greatest numbers of foreigners in ancient Egypt were represented
by the Greeks who became more numerous during the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty.
B.
The best known pioneer to decipher the hieroglyphics
was Kircher, a Jesuit, though Jean-Francois Champollion remains the greatest of
all names associated with the study of Egypt .
C.
The First World War marked a new period in the history
of Egyptology when Maspero, a French scientist was dispatched to Cairo by the French
government to train Egyptologists and Arabic scholars after the death of
Mariette who previously held the post of Service
des Antiquetes.
D.
Having excelled in the art of pyramid construction and
colossi or pectorals and pendants, Egyptians rival Greeks and outshine the
other peoples of antiquity.
References
[1] P.
Montet, La Geographie de l’Egypte ancienne, Paris, 1957-1961: I Tomehu, la Basse Egypte; II To-Chema, la Haute Egypte.
[2] Herodotus, II, 177. Diodorus, I, 31,
and Theocritus, XVII, 82-4, give different figures.
[3] P. Montet, Les
Scenes de la Vie privee dans les tombeaux de L’Ancien Empire, Paris 1925; Junker, Giza, 12 vols, and several articles by
Keimer. P. Montet La vie quotidienne en Egypte au temps
des Ramses, Paris, 1942; Posener, Sauneron, Yoyotte, Dictionnaire de la civilization égyptienne, Paris, 1959.
Thursday, October 13, 2016
A LOOK AT SULTAN DEGHOW MUHUMED SAMBUL’S POLITICAL STRUGGLES
Upbringing and
Surrounding Natural Habitat
Sultan
Deghow was born around Wakaab Xaareey (Fecal Pond) in Garissa town that is
currently nonexistent as the entire area has been transformed into a sprawling
urban neighborhood. The result of human population explosion, town expansion,
and drastic metropolitanization are some of the factors that brought about the
unavoidable physical land feature transformations, ecological grafting or the unanticipated
fissures visible to this day. At the time of his birth, the natural habitat was
untouched having the semblance of an equatorial forest; it was purely an
ecological environment free from deforestation or desertization–unlike the
current uncontrolled, human-enforced encroachment and fast-paced transhumance
that has rendered the once natural picturesque denuded of the vital nutrients
that could support the surrounding ecosystem.
The piece of land that he once called home during his
childhood years is now a big farm producing mangos, bananas and other types of
farm produce. The farm contains palatial houses owned by distant relatives
while other portions have been turned into government offices. Gone are the
varieties of tree species he would climb and play hide-and-seek with his age mates
in the olden days. Tree species such as the Cordia
sinensis that is known in Somali as Mareer and the shady Dobera glabra (Garas), the thorny Acacia Senegal (Cadaad), and the
incredibly towering Hyphaene compressa
(Baar), and Ziziphus mauritiana (Gob)—a tree with substantial
horticultural importance, provided edible fruits and nuts while Acacia tortilis (Qurac)—also known as
Gum Arabic—whose dark and reddish sap had been a remedy for eye diseases for
centuries, grew in abundance where the Sultan-to-be resided from birth to
adolescence. For a long time, pastoral Somalis harvested Gum Arabic, an acacia
species whose ophthalmological benefits is mentioned in the famous book, Ten Treatises on the Eye, by the celebrated Nestorian Christian and Arab physician Abu Zayd
Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi (809-877 A.D.).[i]
Commiphora myrrha or simply Myrrh—a tree native to the Horn of Africa and
known to Somalis as Malmal or Dheddin, alleviated female Dysmenorrhea—a gynecological terminology pertaining
to menstrual cramps or painful periods during menstruation.[ii] In
Somali nomadic pharmacology, Myrrh has been used as an analgesic (pain killer) to
treat abrasions, bruises, and to tranquilize toothaches, and contain sprains. To
control or contain young bachelor males showing signs of Hyperspermia—an
abnormally excessive sex drive or semen ejaculation[iii], conservative
peripatetic parents consulted traditional herbalists to administer liquefied
Myrrh to overcome the horrors of unanticipated rape and sexual molestation of innocent
Somali girls and adult females.
Besides, Salvadora
persica (Cadey), a natural toothbrush that has been in use since the time
of the Babylonians as a preventive herbal medication against tooth decay and
plaque—a species unique to the ecological environment of that time, has been
replaced by the locally insignificant, little known Prosopis juliflora—an infuriating weed and a pernicious invader having
dreadful economic and negative environmental influence in many parts of the
world. Even to this present day where the majority of the urbanized global
human population use toothbrushes that are made from nylon bristles and plastic
and the varieties of irritating toothpastes that are readily available in every
store, Sultan Deghow’s constant use of Salvadora
persica before every salah (Islamic prayer) as admonished in the Hadith
(Islamic tradition), has enabled him to keep sparkling white teeth and endearing,
affectionate smile. Salvadora persica
is a common toothbrush in regions where its use is widespread and customary. The
historical significance of this natural toothbrush, has given it international
recognition such that the World Health Organization has recommended its daily
use for tooth cleaning.[iv]
Heavy
livestock and wildlife concentration metamorphosed the once crystal clear
manmade dam where young Deghow was born and raised by his loving parents in to a
pulverulent, murky, and fecal-soiled water catchment devoid of human glance and
praise. Thus, Somalis who are masters of nicknaming pejoratively gave it the
peculiar, funny name that became a permanent, irreplaceable epithet or mark of
distinction. In the olden days, Deghow’s birthplace teemed with friendly and
ferocious wildlife and untouched natural botanical gardens that were a delight
to the sightseer. Succulent roots and tubers that relieved the hunger pangs of
the obstreperous kids on exploratory missions experimenting on the techniques of
miniature wild game hunting, flourished in their natural habitat. Using bows
and arrows crafted from wood, kids hunted the Dik-dik, Guinea fowl, and smaller
antelopes. Beautiful sceneries and plenty of water and pasturage for the wild
and domesticated animals created an environment akin to the equatorial African
jungle.
The endangered, often mispronounced Hirola antelope
or the Hunter’s Antelope whose scientific name is Beatragus hunter, burgeoned
in their thousands around the Sultan’s neighborhood in his heydays. Carawle, as
it should be rightly called in Somali, is now an endangered species secluded in
a conservation resort far away from human encroachment.
Besides the Hirola Antelope, the white-stripped, irascible
Somali skunk thrived along the Tana River which was a stone throw away from the
young Sultan’s pastoral residence. Though primarily carnivorous, the Somali
skunk—an animal that feeds
on select fauna—has the tendency to supplement its diet with insects, birds’
chicks and even mice and cherries when beset by food scarcity. Polygamous
in nature, the skunk, whose scientific name is Mephitis mephitis, is an animal despised by Somalis
for its vociferous and ferocious attacks and braggadocious approaches when
agitated. Somali myth has it that the Somali skunk applies explosively
ballistic fart to blow up and fumigate the colonies of bees from their hives
before embarking on the strenuous effort of sucking honey out of trees.
While the
ecology of those days teemed with varying wildlife sharing identical or
opposing phylogenic specifications, one exemplary animal that is worth
mentioning for its gripping appearance and graceful look is the giraffe-necked
Gerenuk or the Litocranius walleri.
Undoubtedly, this animal is endemic to Somali inhabited regions and
surprisingly, it is the intimate friend of the reticulated giraffe. Since the
Gerenuk browses with the Somali Giraffa Camelopardalis
reticulata and that its position to the giraffe makes an
onlooker envision an act of feeding or suckling, the name Gerenuk should be
replaced with Geri-Nuug—which simply means suckling a giraffe.
Less than a mile from the meandering Tana River
that split the former NFD from the Tana River District, Deghow’s neighborhood
teemed with mammals of varying colors, shapes, sizes and distinct taxonomies. The
Tana River, Kenya’s largest and longest river that originates in the Aberdare
Mountains, drains into the Indian Ocean near the town of Kipini. Somalis and the
Orma or Oromo and other ethnic groups, call this river Webi Galana or Galana
Maro. Overgrazing and deforestation were uncommon those days; domesticated and
wild game, amphibians and reptiles and a plethora of bird species flourished in
their thousands. The deadly spitting cobra and the venomous puff adder
zigzagged through the forests and surrounding arid areas while the massive hippopotamus
and the crocodile waded through the reddish waters of the nearby river.
The largest and the most beautiful flightless bird
in the world—the Somali ostrich (Struthio molybdophanes)–a bird species phylogenetically portraying
distinct heritable traits after mitochondrial DNA testing in 2014[v] separated
it from other living and extinct species–danced in the wild while the gregarious
Marabou Stork or Leptoptilos crumeniferus, either
flew heavenwards or hideously perched on select acacia tree species to evade
alien encounters. By hiding its eggs and newly-hatched chicks from human and
animal infiltrations, the Marabou Stork has experienced exponential growth in
numbers in recent years.
Education and Mental Healing
As the Sultan reminisces, education in the former NFD
collectively started in 1946 in all the six districts that included Garissa,
Wajir, Mandera, Moyale, Marsabit, and Isiolo. However, according to Turton,
Wajir, which falls to the north of Garissa where the Sultan was born, had its
first primary school in 1948. [vi]
The year 1946 corresponds to an era when Somalis in Kenya were marginalized by
the British colonial administration–a year after the end of the Second World
War–a period of pan-Somali upheaval that was rejuvenated after the
recommendations of the British Foreign Secretary, Ernest Bevin, who
proposed the creation of a ‘Greater Somalia’ state to seal undeterred Somali
pastoralists’ movement across unguarded colonial borders.[vii]
Deghow recalls starting his formal education at an
intermediate colonial government private school that same year. After eight
years of hard work and dedication to his secular education, Deghow successfully
completed his primary education. On the other hand, while pursuing his primary
or intermediate education—a trend common among modern Somali school-goers, young
Deghow attended an Islamic school that was run by his father who was a Maalim–a
term originating in Arabic that translates to a ‘teacher’. Besides specializing
as a teacher, Deghow’s father was a man of scholarly repute and as well one who
memorized the entire Qur’an at a tender age—a uniform tendency that was unique
to Somalis practicing sedentarization—a term interchangeably used in this book
to connote pastoralism, nomadism or mobility that is mainly practiced by people
whose lives were dictated by changing weather patterns, rivalry, cattle
rustling, territorial competition and transhumance.
Such living conditions consequently lead to the search for
water and pasturage for the herds of livestock that sustained people falling
under such social category. Even at this time and age, Deghow, who is a few
years short of attaining the feeble octogenarian age, quotes specific Qur’anic
verses when explaining major subjects under discussion—an indication he has a
good grasp of Qur’anic exegesis, Islamic jurisprudence, empyreal or
stratospheric knowledge and other divine thoughts and principles.
Life father like son, it is the ingrained spiritual limpidity
inherited from his spiritual father that gave him unfathomable outspokenness
and adeptness of vulnerary remediation between pastoral conflicting parties.
His tenderness of heart and compassion for innocent humans besieged by the
inflicting horrors of European colonialism gave him the human resolve to embark
on a political path of self-determination through armed struggle that lasted
almost half a century in later years.
Since the colonial administration practiced divide-and-rule
tactics, majority of the teachers who taught in secular and religious schools
in Garissa District were primarily Muslim teachers brought from as far as
Zanzibar. Zanzibari pedagogues managed and operated the few Madrassas in the
district using Arabic as the medium of instruction.
People of Bantu extraction—whether pedagogues or others
espousing distinctive educational backgrounds—regardless of whether they were
males or females, were not allowed in to the former NFD. On the other hand,
Somalis and the Oromo were restricted from crossing the Tana River to other
parts of Kenya for fear of exporting hostilities to peaceful southern regions
that were haven for European settlers.
Ironically, rather than instituting novel administrative measures
and injecting visionary leadership styles, the same stringent restrictive
measures that were borrowed from the departing colonial master continued
unabated even after Kenya’s attainment of independence in 1963 up to the Jomo
Kenyatta and Arap Moi eras. Prior to taking office in the volatile, segregated
NFD, British colonial administrative designates sent to the region to take over
from their counterparts would exclusively be provided with Somali or Oromo
cooks, drivers, and security guards, as the Sultan recalls.
Thus, the exclusive transfer of Zanzibari Muslim teachers to
NFD was a way of enticing people belonging to the Hamito-Cushtic race to
embrace British Colonial system of education while allowing Islamic education
and Christian missionary activities to run side by side unrestrained.
While Christian education and missionary activities were inessential
in areas heavily populated by people of Somali ethnic origin in the former NFD,
traces of Christian evangelical activities remained visible among people
practicing paganism and other African religious beliefs. The Somali disdain for
other religious beliefs and their ardent desire to hold on to their Islamic
beliefs, rendered Christian missionary proselytization efforts an impossible
task.
After wrapping up his intermediate education, the youthful
Deghow enrolled for secondary and university education through correspondence
in Nairobi as it was the only way to enlighten his quest for higher education. While
the Portuguese missionary activities were the first to inject formal schooling
in Africa in the middle of the sixteenth century, the British and the French
and later on the Americans laid down the foundations for some form of
authoritative European system of education in the nineteenth century.[viii]
Adan Makina
WardheerNews
adan.makina@gmail.com
[i]
Nagamia, Husain F., and Nasir Puyan. "Abū
Zayd Ḥunayn ibn Isḥāq al-‘Ibādī: A Physician Translator Par Excellence." Journal of the Islamic Medical
Association of North America 40.1
(2008).
[iii]
Cooke, S., J. P. P. Tyler, and G. L. Driscoll.
"Andrology: Hyperspermia: the forgotten condition?." Human Reproduction 10.2 (1995): 367-368.
[iv]
Khatak, M. et al. “Salvadora Persica.” Pharmacognosy Reviews 4.8 (2010): 209–214. PMC. Web. 2 Oct. 2016.
[v]
BirdLife International (2014). "Struthio
molybdophanes". IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2014.2. International Union for
Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 8 October 2016.
[vi]
Turton, Edmund Romilly. "The introduction and
development of educational facilities for the Somali in Kenya." History of Education Quarterly 14.3 (1974): 347-365.
[vii] Whittaker, Hannah. "Pursuing pastoralists: The
stigma of shifta during the 'shifta war ‘in Kenya, 1963-68." (2008).
[viii]
White, Bob W. "Talk
about School: education and the colonial project in French and British Africa
(1860-1960)." Comparative
Education 32.1 (1996): 9-26.
Monday, September 19, 2016
ROSARIES AND AMULETS
By Adan Makina
A myth is a religion in which no one any longer believes—James Feibleman
Rosaries and Amulets are two religious symbols whose historical significance has baffled researchers mainly those engaged in anthropology, sociology, and archeology. Mythological, religious or otherwise, the rosary is seen as a device that plays a great role in human contemplation of the unknowns as well as a revealer of unfathomable heavenly mystiques. An ordinary object of daily use for millions of committed adherents with differing religious, ideological, and cultural backgrounds, the rosary continues to dangle from the necks of Sheikhs, priests, Rabbis, knowledgeable hermits, spiritualists, and monks without losing its rightful role in society regardless of whether it is crafted from simple wood or made from precious gemstone.
The use of rosaries or prayer beads is widespread among the followers of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. In Buddhism and Hinduism, the Japa Mala or simply Mala, is a rosary of 108 beads usually worn by priests exclusively for chants purposes. In esoteric Japanese and Tibetan Buddhism, rosaries are used for counting the Mantras and also serve as attributes for some deities most notably the Avalokiteshvara who is the Bodhisattva of compassion. In almost all religions, as usual, the right hand is the regulator of the rosary in every session with the finger nearest the thumb being the one that flicks and counts the preferred chant. In Chinese, the rosary is called Nianzhu; in Japanese it is Nenju; in Vietnamese it is known as Tranghat; while it is Rosarium in Latin.
There is a lot of debate regarding the origin of the rosary among users. [(1)] “In Islam, however, the performance of the rosary is an act of piety. The word for "rosary" in the Arabic language is sibha or masbaha, which is derived from Subhana Allah (God be praised). According to Ali Gom'a Mohamed, professor of fiqh (Jurisprudence in Islam) at Al-Azhar University, the number of beads in the Muslim rosary varies: there is a 33- bead rosary which requires three turns around the circle of beads. Each bead represents one of the names of God mentioned in the Qur'an, the total of which is 99. Another is divided into three parts, each made up of 33 beads which are used at the end of each of the five daily prayers. There is also a 100- bead rosary used in accordance with Sunnah. In his book, Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians, Edward Lane mentioned a 1,000-bead rosary used for funerals.” To some Muslim scholars, the use of the fingers is more preferred than the rosary. They claim that the joints at the phalanges and metacarpals have been created to count prayer chants and that the rosary is an unnecessary innovation into Islam.
Abrahamic and philosophic religions, Pagan and animist practices display amulets of various makes, shapes, and colors worn around the neck with the promises of wealth, children, health, and other human allures or to ward off evil, magic, wicked spirits, and misfortunes. [(2)] “An amulet or charm is an apotropaic object or device, usually with writing on it, which provides prophylaxis against harm, whether of natural or supernatural origin. The use of amulets and charms is virtually universal across human cultures and across time, and Jews are no exception. Jewish amulets have been used to ward off a variety of ills: disease, mishap, sorcery, and/or malevolent spirits. They can also serve as love charms. They have been particularly used by Jews to protect women during pregnancy and to shield newborn infants.”
Amulets have been in existence since the days of the Canaanites, Phoenicians, Assyrians, and Ancient Egyptians. In Turkey, Nazar boncuk is a special type of amulet believed to protect one from evil eye. Amulets can be found all over Turkey; Turkish women use amulets as bracelets, earrings or necklaces. Turkish people hang them in their houses, offices and also inside cars while babies have specially designed amulets attached to their cloths. This leads us to the notion that the nation of Turkey is the leading producer of amulets in the world. Turkish amulets are mainly blue in color and look like an eye. Some Turkish amulets have magnetic fields making them easily stick to some select surfaces like the refrigerator door. There is a common belief among the Turkish people that even well-intentioned compliments have a conscious or unconscious measure of spite and resentment. For a Turkish amulet to guard a house, it should be hang at the entrance to the house.
An explanation of the origin of the amulet in Turkish superstition goes this way: once upon a time…there was a massive rock by the sea that could not be split asunder, cracked or broken into pieces despite the combined efforts of a hundred men and repeated dynamiting. After exhausting all energy and technical expertise, mention was made of a man who lived by the sea and who was known to carry the evil eye (nazar). Finally, a plan was hatched to bring the man to the rock venue so he could display his spectacular rock-splitting skills. Upon arriving at the scene and upon setting his sights on the rock, the man was heard to exclaim, “oh my God, what a gigantic rock!” The instant he finished his intonation, there was a crack and then a thunderous sound followed by violent convulsion that reduced the unbreakable huge rock into two pieces.
Moreover, in almost all superstitious communities, it is common for visiting neighbors and strangers alike to compliment on the health, shape, size, and color of newborn babies. For some reason, as fate would have it, the baby gets sick because the invisible evil eye penetrated the baby’s body and soul. At this point in time, parents and immediate relatives of the infant have no other choice but to contact a shaman or cleric to prepare an amulet to keep at bay all varieties of evil eyes as the baby undergoes various developmental stages of metamorphosis. In some communities, a crack on an amulet resulting from prolonged use denotes the wearer has received overwhelming protection and blessings for the duration the amulet was worn.
Egyptologists carrying out archeological excavations in the many burial sites scattered all over Egypt stumbled upon historical amulets made of papyrus finely encased in pharaonic sarcophagus. “Also, Coptic amulets dating back to the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. have been unearthed in Egypt. Some of the amulets found in Egyptian pyramids are written in Mandaic (an Eastern Aramaic dialect) and have not been translated to this day. In some rare amulets, ancient Egyptians displayed images of the two-headed god (snake and Ibis); there are amulets depicting the cock-headed-snake-legged god, others display the eagle-headed god, crowned hawks, papyri boats, symbols of deities and the ram-headed god. Uterine amulets helped control contraception and childbirth, others were meant for regeneration and eternity and for hip pains (sciatica).” [(3) The discovery of Greco-Roman, Babylonian, and other varieties of amulets used by diverse ancient civilizations add flavor to the expanding infant archeological sciences.
In Somalia, amulet use is common among nomadic, urban and tribal communities. A well crafted amulet, depending on size and shape, typically is encased in leather while others are sheathed in fine threads. However, there is a type of amulet known locally as “Qardhaas” which is usually carved out of wood and worn around the neck.
Also, Qardhaas may be strapped round the neck of domesticated animals for protection against theft, disease, and the evil eye. The most remarkable trademark amulet known among Somalis is “Xirsi”- which is used for overcoming the whispers of the dreaded Jinni notorious for its mischievous use of supernatural powers. Whether one is seeking to expand a stagnated business enterprise, win the heart of a stubborn mademoiselle, embark on a treacherous journey, overcome the trauma of sterility or recover from a debilitating malady, owning an amulet that will dangle from one’s wrist, neck, leg, thigh, around the waist or other parts of the body, will, if determined by the amulet’s original designer or prescriber bring about abrupt changes and healing to the afflicted body and mind in the nick of time. In women, amulets may be worn to overcome gynecological ailments, vitamin deficiencies, urinary tract infections, migraines, infertility, schizophrenia, mental disorders and even to overcome jealousy.
Perhaps, humans used amulets to triumph over hardships at a time when modern medications other than herbal medicine were nonexistent. Natural hazards like Tsunamis, epidemics, flooding, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, hurricanes, and other unavoidable predicaments that decimated populations may have contributed to the discovery of amulets by shamans whose livelihood depended on the knowledge and skills of prescribing medication and healing the sick. Despite their dependence on trial and error techniques and despite premeditated medical malpractices, healers and shamans continued to be a source of inspiration for millions in need of medical attention.
Religious and historical accounts of human sacrifices as a last resort evolved as a result of appeasing virulent gods and deities whose anger could only be contained by spilling blood and goring human flesh in pagan and animist ritual practices-secret procedures found in some communities. The wave of secret murders of Albinos for ritualistic purposes and the rape of infants by HIV/AIDS sufferers in some countries epitomizes the continuation of ancient practices and the total disregard for the sanctity of human life.
People living in modern western democracies do attach importance to the use of amulets. Rock band musicians, reggae ragamuffins, gangsters, heads of government institutions, and people from all walks of society wear amulets in daily life either as ornaments or for protection against the unknowns. In the African continent, reports of leaders seeking consultations with magicians, shamans, and soothsayers, palmists and astrologers during election times is no secret. Thus, mythological experts have the power to instill fear in the hearts of their clients’ opponents or even cause them to suffer diseases unbeknownst to modern doctors. In some Asian cultures, shamans have mastered the art of shedding light on natural phenomena say like how a perceived volcanic eruption will affect surrounding inhabitants.
Amulets are widely worn as aphrodisiacs in some communities even with the advancement of medical technology. In some diverse cultures, dangling a piece of rhino horn around the neck is a prescription for erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation, and other aspects related to sexual genitalia malfunctioning. A man in need of instantaneous desirability from an unfriendly woman may resort to wearing a specially designed amulet meant to win her heart even when real love is not on her side. Likewise, women may influence men by wearing amulets of like kind and purpose. Wearing articulately designed amulets with religious inscriptions is a common occurrence across cultures.
However, amulets come in many shapes and designs depending on culture, religion, and intention. Primarily, women who are sterile may wear them around the waist right across where the uterus is located; it may dangle from the neck; it is worn on the wrist and it may also be worn around the thighs. It could be as tiny as a finger ring or it could even be a seed to be retained in the pocket. It is up to one’s preference and choosing how an amulet should be worn and how it should look like.
The emergence of religious fundamentalism has instilled terror among amulet wearers. Fear of retribution or the dread of being associated with certain cults has forced many to formulate assortment of amulets that dissuade the attention of religious fanatics. For example, the use of regular necklaces, finger rings, and even ear rings as amulets has made ancient amulet blueprints obsolete and replicated for modernity.
Thus, inscriptional amulets have been substituted with intentional amulets. This brings us to the idea that amulets need not be handwritten on a piece of paper by a cleric with verses from a divine scripture and then folded into shape anymore. Instead, reciting select verses on to a piece of jewelry is enough to hold the message as intention is superior to scribbling. In Africa, amulet use is widespread among cultures though its use among communities depends on the nature of religious practices and form of worship. Surprisingly, Tuareg amulets sell for up to $150 a piece on eBay. However civilized and transformed the world has become, amulet and rosary use will remain with humankind for a long time to come.
A myth is a religion in which no one any longer believes—James Feibleman
Rosaries and Amulets are two religious symbols whose historical significance has baffled researchers mainly those engaged in anthropology, sociology, and archeology. Mythological, religious or otherwise, the rosary is seen as a device that plays a great role in human contemplation of the unknowns as well as a revealer of unfathomable heavenly mystiques. An ordinary object of daily use for millions of committed adherents with differing religious, ideological, and cultural backgrounds, the rosary continues to dangle from the necks of Sheikhs, priests, Rabbis, knowledgeable hermits, spiritualists, and monks without losing its rightful role in society regardless of whether it is crafted from simple wood or made from precious gemstone.
The use of rosaries or prayer beads is widespread among the followers of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. In Buddhism and Hinduism, the Japa Mala or simply Mala, is a rosary of 108 beads usually worn by priests exclusively for chants purposes. In esoteric Japanese and Tibetan Buddhism, rosaries are used for counting the Mantras and also serve as attributes for some deities most notably the Avalokiteshvara who is the Bodhisattva of compassion. In almost all religions, as usual, the right hand is the regulator of the rosary in every session with the finger nearest the thumb being the one that flicks and counts the preferred chant. In Chinese, the rosary is called Nianzhu; in Japanese it is Nenju; in Vietnamese it is known as Tranghat; while it is Rosarium in Latin.
There is a lot of debate regarding the origin of the rosary among users. [(1)] “In Islam, however, the performance of the rosary is an act of piety. The word for "rosary" in the Arabic language is sibha or masbaha, which is derived from Subhana Allah (God be praised). According to Ali Gom'a Mohamed, professor of fiqh (Jurisprudence in Islam) at Al-Azhar University, the number of beads in the Muslim rosary varies: there is a 33- bead rosary which requires three turns around the circle of beads. Each bead represents one of the names of God mentioned in the Qur'an, the total of which is 99. Another is divided into three parts, each made up of 33 beads which are used at the end of each of the five daily prayers. There is also a 100- bead rosary used in accordance with Sunnah. In his book, Manners and Customs of Modern Egyptians, Edward Lane mentioned a 1,000-bead rosary used for funerals.” To some Muslim scholars, the use of the fingers is more preferred than the rosary. They claim that the joints at the phalanges and metacarpals have been created to count prayer chants and that the rosary is an unnecessary innovation into Islam.
Abrahamic and philosophic religions, Pagan and animist practices display amulets of various makes, shapes, and colors worn around the neck with the promises of wealth, children, health, and other human allures or to ward off evil, magic, wicked spirits, and misfortunes. [(2)] “An amulet or charm is an apotropaic object or device, usually with writing on it, which provides prophylaxis against harm, whether of natural or supernatural origin. The use of amulets and charms is virtually universal across human cultures and across time, and Jews are no exception. Jewish amulets have been used to ward off a variety of ills: disease, mishap, sorcery, and/or malevolent spirits. They can also serve as love charms. They have been particularly used by Jews to protect women during pregnancy and to shield newborn infants.”
Amulets have been in existence since the days of the Canaanites, Phoenicians, Assyrians, and Ancient Egyptians. In Turkey, Nazar boncuk is a special type of amulet believed to protect one from evil eye. Amulets can be found all over Turkey; Turkish women use amulets as bracelets, earrings or necklaces. Turkish people hang them in their houses, offices and also inside cars while babies have specially designed amulets attached to their cloths. This leads us to the notion that the nation of Turkey is the leading producer of amulets in the world. Turkish amulets are mainly blue in color and look like an eye. Some Turkish amulets have magnetic fields making them easily stick to some select surfaces like the refrigerator door. There is a common belief among the Turkish people that even well-intentioned compliments have a conscious or unconscious measure of spite and resentment. For a Turkish amulet to guard a house, it should be hang at the entrance to the house.
An explanation of the origin of the amulet in Turkish superstition goes this way: once upon a time…there was a massive rock by the sea that could not be split asunder, cracked or broken into pieces despite the combined efforts of a hundred men and repeated dynamiting. After exhausting all energy and technical expertise, mention was made of a man who lived by the sea and who was known to carry the evil eye (nazar). Finally, a plan was hatched to bring the man to the rock venue so he could display his spectacular rock-splitting skills. Upon arriving at the scene and upon setting his sights on the rock, the man was heard to exclaim, “oh my God, what a gigantic rock!” The instant he finished his intonation, there was a crack and then a thunderous sound followed by violent convulsion that reduced the unbreakable huge rock into two pieces.
Moreover, in almost all superstitious communities, it is common for visiting neighbors and strangers alike to compliment on the health, shape, size, and color of newborn babies. For some reason, as fate would have it, the baby gets sick because the invisible evil eye penetrated the baby’s body and soul. At this point in time, parents and immediate relatives of the infant have no other choice but to contact a shaman or cleric to prepare an amulet to keep at bay all varieties of evil eyes as the baby undergoes various developmental stages of metamorphosis. In some communities, a crack on an amulet resulting from prolonged use denotes the wearer has received overwhelming protection and blessings for the duration the amulet was worn.
Egyptologists carrying out archeological excavations in the many burial sites scattered all over Egypt stumbled upon historical amulets made of papyrus finely encased in pharaonic sarcophagus. “Also, Coptic amulets dating back to the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. have been unearthed in Egypt. Some of the amulets found in Egyptian pyramids are written in Mandaic (an Eastern Aramaic dialect) and have not been translated to this day. In some rare amulets, ancient Egyptians displayed images of the two-headed god (snake and Ibis); there are amulets depicting the cock-headed-snake-legged god, others display the eagle-headed god, crowned hawks, papyri boats, symbols of deities and the ram-headed god. Uterine amulets helped control contraception and childbirth, others were meant for regeneration and eternity and for hip pains (sciatica).” [(3) The discovery of Greco-Roman, Babylonian, and other varieties of amulets used by diverse ancient civilizations add flavor to the expanding infant archeological sciences.
In Somalia, amulet use is common among nomadic, urban and tribal communities. A well crafted amulet, depending on size and shape, typically is encased in leather while others are sheathed in fine threads. However, there is a type of amulet known locally as “Qardhaas” which is usually carved out of wood and worn around the neck.
Also, Qardhaas may be strapped round the neck of domesticated animals for protection against theft, disease, and the evil eye. The most remarkable trademark amulet known among Somalis is “Xirsi”- which is used for overcoming the whispers of the dreaded Jinni notorious for its mischievous use of supernatural powers. Whether one is seeking to expand a stagnated business enterprise, win the heart of a stubborn mademoiselle, embark on a treacherous journey, overcome the trauma of sterility or recover from a debilitating malady, owning an amulet that will dangle from one’s wrist, neck, leg, thigh, around the waist or other parts of the body, will, if determined by the amulet’s original designer or prescriber bring about abrupt changes and healing to the afflicted body and mind in the nick of time. In women, amulets may be worn to overcome gynecological ailments, vitamin deficiencies, urinary tract infections, migraines, infertility, schizophrenia, mental disorders and even to overcome jealousy.
Perhaps, humans used amulets to triumph over hardships at a time when modern medications other than herbal medicine were nonexistent. Natural hazards like Tsunamis, epidemics, flooding, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, hurricanes, and other unavoidable predicaments that decimated populations may have contributed to the discovery of amulets by shamans whose livelihood depended on the knowledge and skills of prescribing medication and healing the sick. Despite their dependence on trial and error techniques and despite premeditated medical malpractices, healers and shamans continued to be a source of inspiration for millions in need of medical attention.
Religious and historical accounts of human sacrifices as a last resort evolved as a result of appeasing virulent gods and deities whose anger could only be contained by spilling blood and goring human flesh in pagan and animist ritual practices-secret procedures found in some communities. The wave of secret murders of Albinos for ritualistic purposes and the rape of infants by HIV/AIDS sufferers in some countries epitomizes the continuation of ancient practices and the total disregard for the sanctity of human life.
People living in modern western democracies do attach importance to the use of amulets. Rock band musicians, reggae ragamuffins, gangsters, heads of government institutions, and people from all walks of society wear amulets in daily life either as ornaments or for protection against the unknowns. In the African continent, reports of leaders seeking consultations with magicians, shamans, and soothsayers, palmists and astrologers during election times is no secret. Thus, mythological experts have the power to instill fear in the hearts of their clients’ opponents or even cause them to suffer diseases unbeknownst to modern doctors. In some Asian cultures, shamans have mastered the art of shedding light on natural phenomena say like how a perceived volcanic eruption will affect surrounding inhabitants.
Amulets are widely worn as aphrodisiacs in some communities even with the advancement of medical technology. In some diverse cultures, dangling a piece of rhino horn around the neck is a prescription for erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation, and other aspects related to sexual genitalia malfunctioning. A man in need of instantaneous desirability from an unfriendly woman may resort to wearing a specially designed amulet meant to win her heart even when real love is not on her side. Likewise, women may influence men by wearing amulets of like kind and purpose. Wearing articulately designed amulets with religious inscriptions is a common occurrence across cultures.
However, amulets come in many shapes and designs depending on culture, religion, and intention. Primarily, women who are sterile may wear them around the waist right across where the uterus is located; it may dangle from the neck; it is worn on the wrist and it may also be worn around the thighs. It could be as tiny as a finger ring or it could even be a seed to be retained in the pocket. It is up to one’s preference and choosing how an amulet should be worn and how it should look like.
The emergence of religious fundamentalism has instilled terror among amulet wearers. Fear of retribution or the dread of being associated with certain cults has forced many to formulate assortment of amulets that dissuade the attention of religious fanatics. For example, the use of regular necklaces, finger rings, and even ear rings as amulets has made ancient amulet blueprints obsolete and replicated for modernity.
Thus, inscriptional amulets have been substituted with intentional amulets. This brings us to the idea that amulets need not be handwritten on a piece of paper by a cleric with verses from a divine scripture and then folded into shape anymore. Instead, reciting select verses on to a piece of jewelry is enough to hold the message as intention is superior to scribbling. In Africa, amulet use is widespread among cultures though its use among communities depends on the nature of religious practices and form of worship. Surprisingly, Tuareg amulets sell for up to $150 a piece on eBay. However civilized and transformed the world has become, amulet and rosary use will remain with humankind for a long time to come.
References
(1) http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/627/fe2.htm
(2) http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/amulet.html
(3) http://www.lib.umich.edu/pap/exhibits/magic/def1.display.html
(1) http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/627/fe2.htm
(2) http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/amulet.html
(3) http://www.lib.umich.edu/pap/exhibits/magic/def1.display.html
This article previously appeared on www.wardheernews.com
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