SOUTH AFRICA UP IN FLAMES: "THE BIRTH OF NEW BLACK APARTHEID MENTALITY"

For the past few weeks, parts of South Africa’s beautiful cities were up in flames-not because they were attacked by an external invading force-but because irate black South African youths with seditious agendas yet to be deciphered by their state intelligence took up arms against black outsiders who have sought refuge in this economically prosperous country known for exclusive kraals, beautiful sceneries, extensive Velds, unique click languages and rigorous historical struggle against British and Boer minority rule respectively.

Earlier this week, nationals of Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, and Somalia were targeted by angry black youths who felt foreigners were taking up their jobs and business opportunities. Using crude weapons of differing shapes and sizes including machetes, knobkerries (wooden clubs), bottles, hammers and swords, deranged youths poured in to the streets of major cities in droves with the intention of driving out fellow Africans seeking refuge in their country.

Emboldened by dysphoria-a psychiatric condition that denotes extreme dissatisfaction or unease, indifference or emotional unease or perhaps jealousy of seeing fellow Africans excelling in social and economic aspects, marauding South African youth left nothing at their disposal to molest, burn and even kill fellow Africans in search of refuge and economic achievement.

South Africa, a rich and prosperous nation that just came out of the shadows of apartheid has been described as having the highest crime rate in the world. In the meantime, it is not just about crime-it is-as one influential religious figure put it, “the birth of new black apartheid mentality”. Harrowing incidents of innocent migrant victims doused in paraffin and set ablaze and the indiscriminate torching of their businesses kept the world gazing at what triggered such impulsive mayhem in Africa’s only hope and emerging economic power. Within days of the violence, over a dozen people died and thousands sought shelter in churches and in police stations. To better understand the history of South Africa, we need to reflect its past injustices.

Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd: Architect of Apartheid

South Africa’s ‘architect of apartheid’ was none other than Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd.¹ Born in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, in 1901, he moved with his parents to South Africa at age two. In his childhood, Verwoerd lived in Bulawayo in the former Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) where, in 1913, he was enrolled in the famous Milton High School. In 1917, his family moved to the Orange Free State settling in Brandfort. The devastating Spanish flu epidemic delayed his matriculation exams until 1919.

Later on, he attended the University of Stellenbosch where he excelled in class and graduated with honors. A very bright student, Verwoerd completed his master’s degree in 1922 and was conferred on with a doctorate in 1924. He is credited with writing several works that are still available at the University of Stellenbosch. In 1925, after completion of his doctoral studies, Verwoerd left for Germany where he visited the universities of Hamburg, Berlin, and Leipzig. It was while in Germany that he was joined by his fiancée, Betsie Schoombie, consequently marrying her on the 7^th of January, 1927.

Upon returning to South Africa in 1928 with his new wife, Verwoerd became professor of psychology at the University of Stellenbosch while at the same time playing a great role in the re-shaping of the ruling National Party where he became editor of its sole newspaper, Die Transvaler, in 1937.

In 1950, Frederick Malan, who was then Prime Minister, appointed him Minister of Native affairs. Prime Minister Malan’s retirement from politics in 1953 opened a political path for Verwoerd. Following the death of National Party leader J.G. Strijdom in 1958, he was appointed Governor-General. Verwoerd’s predecessors and successors may have died of natural causes but what cut short his life at the mere age of 65 while holding the nation’s Premiership, may be hard to swallow.

On the 6^th of September, 1966, after wrapping up a historical political talk with Chief Leabua Jonathan of Lesotho at the Union Building in Pretoria, Verwoerd entered the House of Assembly at 2:15 PM where a deranged ‘dark-skinned’ (colored) Assembly Clerk of Mozambican origin, Dimitri Tsafendas, who had instructions from a large worm in his stomach, stabbed Verwoerd four times in the chest only to be pronounced dead upon arrival at Groote Schuur Hospital.

The creation of Apartheid set the stage for the creation of homelands that were like concentration camps that restricted the movement of the black-skinned African regardless of national origin, religious conviction and political affiliation. It was Daniel Francois Malan who hypothesized the Bantu Authorities Act in 1951 resulting in the establishment of “homelands” that constituted 13% of South Africa's landmass.

Former Black Homelands (Bantustans) during Apartheid Era

During the apartheid era, there were a total of ten self-governing black homelands for different black ethnic groups and all were re-incorporated into South Africa on the 27^th of April, 1994, when Nelson Mandela became President. They included Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, Gazankulu, KaNgwane, KwaNdebele, KwaZulu, Lebowa, Qwaqwa, Transkei, and Venda. Lack of resources in these homelands forced millions of various ethnic groups to migrate to major cities within South Africa where resources were available. This population explosion caused friction and scramble for space between different communities.

With most cultivable land still in the hands of former white settlers, black communities are short of the physiological and agricultural density required for ample sustenance which has direct impact on the Malthusian theory of population increase and shortage of food supplies. The current increased migrations have risen out of economic push and pull factors. Had it not been due to intervening obstacles, South Africa would have by now been the most populated country in Africa. Many migrants’ prospected journeys to South Africa are hindered by rough and dangerous situations.

Prior to the end of the white 'Afrikaner' minority rule in 1994, black South Africans lived in abject poverty, had lower educational standards than whites, owned fewer resources, and relied primarily on other African countries for military and financial support and for strategic and political guidance. Today, Black South Africans, despite regaining their freedom and democracy, desolately live in the same squalid conditions inherited from past apartheid regimes-if not worse.

Thus, the recent spate of violence directed against African migrants who are part of the many fibers rejuvenating the South African economy, is nothing but a lame excuse to advance a hidden agenda that is open to government scrutiny. It is a known secret that many economic powers of our modern world have been built on the strength of immigrants.

Nelson Mandela, the first President of post apartheid South Africa, was a political prisoner for the apartheid regime for twenty eight years mainly in the horrifying Robben Island (Dutch for seal Island) Maximum Security Prison, Pollsmoor Prison in Cape Town, and the Victor Verster Prison near Paarl where he was finally released on February 11, 1990 by F.W. De Klerk, South Africa's last white ruler. His statement from the dock in the Rivonia Trial ends with these words: “I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die”.²

Author of Long Walk to Freedom, Nelson Mandela is revered in the world as a Statesman and Peacemaker. Today, the freedom Mandela fought for is no longer in place because a few thousand jealous black South African thugs have hijacked the nation and taken the law in to their own hands. “Remember the horror from which we come from”, Mandela reminded his fellow South Africans in a 2008 speech. His former wife, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela had this to say: “We are sorry. It is not South African to do this”. What inspired the mayhem is a subject of media coverage and a source of discussion almost in every corner of the world.

Killing other African migrants with gusto did not start at once as it had been slowly creeping from city to city for several years hence the ratio of premeditated brutality tragically skyrocketed recently with killed refugees from Somalia alone thought to number several hundreds. South Africa's foreign refugees who have been victimized relate stories of collusion and inaction by the police who often record such incidents as 'criminal' rather than 'xenophobia'. It was recently revealed by a concerned minister at a hastily and unconventional meeting aimed at curbing xenophobia that the police imprudently displayed ineptitude and weakness and that they should have instead applied more lethal force to combat crime against foreigners.

Foreigners, especially black migrants have been raped, robbed, attacked, and killed in Cape Town, George, Port Elizabeth, Johannesburg, Pretoria, and Durban and also in the slums and ghettos concurrently and in isolated forms for many years with a few or hardly any perpetrators arrested. One wonders what went wrong with the South African judicial system and the application of law and why it has taken such a long time for the state security to mobilize forces before things got out of control.

President Thabo Mbeki, who is known to have initiated and chaired several international conferences on peace and security in Africa and the world over, failed to overturn the unfathomable social turmoil that ailed South Africa when he was in power. A man described as a lame duck has no one else to blame but his own flaws. The root cause of the xenophobia or Afrophobia seen in South Africa has nothing to do with past injustices by the aparthed regime. The problem is in the mismanagement of the economy, corruption and ineffective leadership.

Obviously, black South Africans are not violent and hot-blooded, but they have been made to be so, as they had been immersed in centuries of misrule and chauvinism by a succession of white minority regimes that owned and operated the country with iron fist such that blacks are up to this day restricted to a few Bantustans that cannot sustain them in all aspects. The proliferation of shanty towns due to scarcity of housing for blacks has constituted to a drastic increase in crime, drug addiction and alcoholism, disease, and starvation. Unemployment and social discrimination should be a national concern as major corporations and other business conglomerations still remain in the hands of a few apartheid sympathizers.

Zulu Boy President Jacob Zuma

Jacob Zuma, the man who replaced Thabo Mbeki has not been up to task. When he took over the leadership of South Africa's ailing economy, many thought he would overturn the social debacle that afflicted post-apartheid South Africa. Jacob Zuma, the ‘100% Zulu boy’, has been shrouded by allegations of sexual abuse and misappropriation of funds for some time consequently becoming a victim of his own conscience. Unlike Mbeki who was Xhosa, Jacob Zuma hails from South Africa’s largest tribe and also Africa’s largest, the Zulu (people of heaven), thought to number 10-11 million, who fiercely fought the Boer-British domination of KwaZulu-Natal in the 18^th Century.

Jacob Zuma, the man ordinary South Africans thought would usher in an era of economic propserity and tranquility, did little to protect the struggling African immigrants whose properties were looted and sent packing. Thus, the current spate of unrestrained violence against non-South African blacks could be a harbinger for a sudden change in Pretoria’s political scene. With the unifying African slogan Ubuntu going down the drain and being replaced by animosity towards the struggling African immigrant, tomorrow's South Africa faces a bleak future.

Furthermore, Human Rights Watch, a global organization committed to ‘protecting human rights worldwide’ has been very critical of how the South African immigration officials, police, and border patrols treat migrant workers awaiting deportation to country of origin.³ “Police, immigration officials, and military border patrols in South Africa often seriously abuse undocumented migrants when they arrest them”, said Georgette Gagnon, deputy Africa director at Human Rights Watch. As reported by Human Rights Watch, “undocumented migrants awaiting deportation are locked up with criminal suspects or even convicts, while migrant children are often held alongside adults” .

The 2008 wave of xenophobic attacks against black migrants may have started in Alexandra Township, but the truth of the matter is, migrants, notably Somalis, had been killed in various regions of South Africa without legal justifications for almost a decade. The number of Somalis killed in South Africa in the last decade narrowly number 500.⁴ “Most troubling for the authorities is the fact that the hot spots of anti-immigrant violence are some of the same townships that had been the furnaces of anti-apartheid violence. A little more than a decade after the end of apartheid, the new government is sending the same riot police in the same armored trucks into those same townships to suppress mob violence against immigrants.

Somalis arriving South Africa in the last decade brought diverse business ventures visible in many towns and cities while neighboring Zimbabweans brought with them professionals including doctors, nurses, teachers, and much needed engineers. Rather than being grateful for such unparalleled services, a few disgruntled politicians with apartheid-era inclinations have chosen to finance a few malevolent thugs with arms, drugs, and alcohol for the deliberate disintegration of the ‘Rainbow Nation’ whose formation would have been impossible without the support of the same people they wish to drive out or out rightly exterminate.

A nation that prides to have the best economy in black Africa; a nation that has to its credit several Nobel Prize winners for peace and literature; a state that once amassed nuclear arsenals of immense destruction; a nation with unrivalled infrastructure in the African continent has descended in to chaos within a matter of days with political analysts speculating it to be headed for destruction. The new ‘Rainbow Nation’ may never be the same again unless the current administration takes a strong stand in the preservation of peace and security and the creation of jobs for the suffering unemployed youth languishing in the homelands and ghettos.

Adan Makina

WardheerNews

adan.makina@gmail.com

1 http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hendrik_Verwoerd

2http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/mandela.htm

3http://www.hrw.org/pt/news/2007/02/26/south-africa-migrants-abused-officials-and-farmers

4 http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1808016,00.html

LAMA FILAAN

Waan isku mushquulsanaa oo waxaan ku fooraray telefonkeyga gacanta. Gaari ayaan dhex fadhiyay oo waxaan akhrisanayey qisadii As-xaabu Sabti ee naloogu sheegay Qur'aanka Kariimka ah. Gabadheyda ayaan sugaye in aan ka soo qaado dugsiga sare ee Oak Park High school. Kulbeegga wuxuu tilmaamaye in cimilada ay kulushahay kuna taagneyd 85 dhigirii. Dariishadaha gaariga waa ay ii furnaayeen. Hal baabbuur ayaa horteyda yaalley, dhinaca bidixna wey dhoobnaayeen. Xagga midig cidina igama xigin oo waxaa ku beernaa caws iyo geedo dhaadheer. Gadaal waxaa iga taagnaana maba aanan ogeyn.

Waxaan ka war helay qof dumar ah oo weliba Caddaan ah oo i dul taagan. Waxay i weydiisay in aan amaahin karo qalin. Waan yara naxay illeyn si kedis ah ayey iigu timide. Wey ila yara kaftantay. "Waxaa yaab ah in aniga iyo ninkeyguba aynan qalin sidan", ayey ku calaacashay. "Teeda kale, shaqo ayaan ku jiraa oo sidan baan Ku shaqyn hayaa", ayey sii raacisay hadalkeedi. Intaan qalin cuseyb ahaa farta ka saaray ayaan ugu bishaareeyay in ay iska qaadato qalinka. Ayadoo faraxsan ayey agteyda ka dhaqaajisay oo ku noqotay fatuuraddeedi oo gadaasheyda tiil.

NAF JECLEYSI

Dad waxaa jiraa caabuda jirkooda, naftooda, hawadooda. Kuwa jirkooda caabuda waxay maalin kasta ku mushquulaan sidey jirkooda u wanaajin lahaayeen oo waxay sammeeyaan jimicsi xad dhaaf ah. Maalin walba waxay aadaan meelaha lagu jimicsado. Noloshooda waa shaqo iyo jimicsi, daawo la laqo oo qanjidhada iyo xididdada lagu kiciyo iyo kolba meel hor leh oo jirkooda ka mid ahi ay la tacaalaan.

Kuwo waxaa jira kastuuma yar dabada loogu xiro oo kolba dhinac loo rogroga dabadeedna la eego, la salsalaaxo, la masaajeeyo, la miisaamo oo ugu dambeyn sawirro laga qaado kadibna qiimeyn lagu sammeeyo.

Mar waxuu ka shaqeynayaa murqaha gacmaha, marna bowdada iyo kubka, marna barida, marna feeraha iwm. Waa shaqo joogta ah. Waxay cunaan cunto miisaaman. Waxay iska ilaaliyaan baruurta, borotiinka badan, sonkorta, hilibka jiirka ah iyo hilibka digaagga.

Culimada jir dhiska waxay yiraahdaan cuntooyiinka ku habbon jir dhiska waxaa kamid ah nooca kalluunka loo yaqaaan oyster, hilibka loo yaqaan saturated steak ee uu ku badanyahay dheecaan-biyoodka ama atamada (atoms) haydaroojiinka kuna yaryahay labo kaarboonka (double carbon) ama saddex kaarboonka (triple carbon), ukunta iyo yoogada ah caano fadhiya oo lagu daray kheyraad kale sida qudaar la shiiday.

Waxay kaloo si ba'an u cunaan cuntada leh qolfaha (fiber), liinta loo yaqaan grapefruit, beytaraafka (beetroot), badharka laga sameeyo xoolaha cawska cuna, mooska, iyo ugu dambeyn canabka.

Kuwa jecel naftooda iyo hawadooda waxay daba kacaan wax allaale wixii naftooda raaxo gelinaya sida galmada, guryo qurxoon, dahabka, dalxiiska, filimaanta ama shaneemooyiinka, is dhex galka ragga iyo dumarka ama is dhex mushaaxa aadanaha, damaashaadka, heesooyiinka iyo muusikada, xayawaanaadka, badaha, cimilada oo la daawado lana daneeyo, iwm. 

Dabbaaldegga 20ka Maarso

Taariikhda shaleyto waxey aheyd 20 Maarso, 2015. Dadal badan ayaa laga dabbaaldegay 20ka Maarso. Waa maalinkii Nebruz. Magaca Nebruz waxaa kaloo loo yaqaan Nowruz, Norooz, Newroz, iyo siyaabo kaloo loo qoro. Waxaa inta badan laga dabbaaldegaa waddanka Iiraan, Turkiga, iyo dalal kaloo la jaar ah.

Dabbaaldegga Nevruz wuxuu billowday xilligii xukuumadihii la odhan jiray Achaeminids ee xukunkoodu lagu qiyaaso 530-330 Nebi Ciise (Caleyhi salaam) Ka Hor. Boqorkii ugu horreeyay ee meel dhiga dabbaaldegga maalinka Nowruz, wuxuu ahaa halyeygii la odhan jiray Saayraas (Cyrus the Great).

Haddaba 20 Maarso waxaa lagu yaqaan in qorraxda kulushahay waayo waxay ku sii socotaa xarriiq-beenaadka (imaginary line) ee loo yaqaan Ekwatooraha (equator) ayadoo hore usoo martay xariiqa konfureed Tropic of Capricorn. Intuusan sannadka dhammaan ayey qorraxda haddana tegeysaa xarriiq kale oo loo yaqaan Tropic of Cancer oo ku yaal dhanka woqooyi.

Tiirar-beenaadka loo yaqaan udub dhexaadka (poles) ee dunida ukala qeybiya labo dhan ama gabal ee cabbirkiisu yahay eber dhigirii (zero degree) wuxuu maraa magaalooyinka Akra (Accra) ee ah magaala-madaxda dalka Gaana (Ghana) iyo Landhan (London) oo ah caasimadda dalka Ingiriiska.

20ka Maarso waxaa laga gudbayaa xilligii jiilaalka ee qabowga badnaa ama abaaraha ba'an lagu yaqaan waxaana la gelayaa xilliga barwaaqada ama gu'ga ee geedaha caleemo yeeshaan dalaggana si fiican loo helo tacbashada kadib. Xayawaanno godad dhulka hoostiisa ku jiray baa soo baxaa oo haddana tarmaa ama dhaldhalaa. Waa xilliga dad iyo duunyaba damaashaado, shimbiraha noo ciyaan, badaha kululaadaan oo cayayaanka dunida kubato.

Laga billaabo Maarso 20keeda dalalka woqooyi waxay arkaan in qorraxda xilli hore soo baxdo, xilli danbena dhacdo. Dabbeyluhu waa kuwo deggan oo aan xawaara dheer ku socon inkastoo dabeyluhu xawaaraha kordhinayaan goorta la gaaro bisha Agosto oo ay socdaan illaa sannadka daba-yaaqadiisa. Waa xilliga duufanada iyo dabeylaha xoogga badan. Dabeylahaasina waa kuwa geedaha caleenta ka daadiya dhulkana xaaqa ama nadiifiya.

Nowruz oo afka Soomaaliga laoogu tarjumi karo Neyruus, waxaa billaabay dad raacsanaa diinta loo yaqaan Zoroastrianism ama Majuus-waa kuwa dabka caabuda e. Diinta Xoroastrianism-ka waxaa kaloo ku camal fali jiray xukuumadihii la kala odhan jiray Baartiyaan (Parthians) iyo Sasaniyiin (Sassanid). Baartiyaanka waxaa billaabay boqorkii Arsaces-kii Koowaad, Sasaniyiintana waxaa aas-aasay Ardashir-kii Koowaad-waana xukunkii ugu danbeeyay ee Farsiyiinta ama dhulkii la odhan jiray Beershiya (Persia). Kadib waxaa soo if baxay xukuumado Islaami ah.

Xilligii Achaemenids-ka ay xukumi jireen dhulkii Farsiga ee hadda loo yaqaan Iiraan iyo dalal kaloo badan, gobol walbo waxaa ka talin jiray boqor waxaana kasii wada sarreeyay boqor la odhan jiray Shahan Shah oo micnaheedu yahay Boqorkii Boqorrada. Boqorradani yar yari waxay Shahan Shah ukeeni jireen haddiyado xilliga dabbaaldegga Nevruz.

Dabbaaldeggani wuxuu saammeyn ku yeeshay madaahiib ku abtirsada diinta Islaamka kuwaasoo kala ah Ismaaciiliyiinta, Calaawiyiinta oo loo yaqaan Nuseyriyiin, Baxaayiinta oo raacsan Mirsa Xuseen Cali Nuuri, Suufiyiinta, Baabiis oo raacsan Seyid Muxammad Cali Shiraasi iyo Baktaashiyiin oo raacsan Xaaji Baktaash Weli.

A Comprehensive History of Somalia: A Book Review

By Adan Makina June 17 , 2012

A small body of determined spirits fired by an unquenchable faith in their mission can alter the course of history-Mahatma Gandhi

When Ismail Ali Ismail started writing his newly published book that synchronously details the history of Somalia and the Somali people, he had one thing in mind: the delivery of a sequence of events that is free from preconceived notions, preferential treatments, tribal inclinations, and irrelevant gossip. The book, Governance: The Scourge and Hope of Somalia, is a comprehensive history of Somalia and the Somali people and traces the root causes of the miasma and mendacity that have become the hallmarks of the ongoing irremediable Somali intransigence that is like a malignant cancer consuming the very core of Somali political fabric to this day. The book was published by Trafford Publishing in 2010 with the assigned International Standard Book Numbers, ISBN 978-1-4269-1980-0 for its soft cover and ISBN 978-1-4269-2099-0 for the hard cover.

An academic, a public servant of previous Somali governments, and a long time diplomat assigned to various official responsibilities, Ismail’s knowledge of the Somali people and their political ideals may be described as unrivalled and as well unparalleled.

Unlike litigious historical chronicles penned down by past and present opinionated foreign or Somali writers, Ismail’s penmanship will remain evident in its nature of journalism and scholarly research for quite some time. His energy to write has been fuelled by a passion to expose the truth about a people and a nation whose history has become negligible.

What makes the book most attractive is the magnificence and eloquence of language and its cheerfulness and eagerness to marvelously calibrate undiagnosed historical phantasms. Like a camel herder traversing a desert storm in search of sustenance, the author perilously struggled to scramble through bookshelves and internet sites with the sole aim of unearthing and putting together a historical exegesis of profound importance to anyone interested in deciphering the circumstances surrounding Somalia’s exhaustive political entanglement. Voluminous and over four-hundred pages, Governance: The Scourge and Hope of Somalia, has a lot to tell the reader from the beginning chapter to the end.  It is a well researched book that has been written with good intentions. Almost every chapter begins with an ayah (verse) from the Holy Qur’an followed by eye-catching remarks by distinguished historical figures espousing unblemished character, dignity, and great wisdom. In giving a broader meaning to the term clash of civilizations, the author explains how the struggle between Islam and Christianity affected the people of the Horn of Africa. 

The might of Somali pastoral democracy and Somali past history stretch back several millenniums as opposed to the unfounded and untested lexicon of exaggerations that populate imperial libraries. The author illuminates the might of former sultans whose tutelage, according to territorial and ethnographic location, varied in the manner of their sovereignty and hierarchical applications across the expansive Somali peninsula.

Former diplomat/administrator and author Ismail Ali Ismail

The author uses numerous scholarly references to disentangle causes of past Somali obduracy and other malevolent historical dynamics that accelerated the rupturing of the once homogeneous Somali pastoral society. It is quite painful and mind-blowing for modern Somalis to experience the worst form of divisions, tribalism, and shocking forms of slaughter using all avenues of destruction including the application of modern war machinery while during the Somali Youth League (SYL) era there was little or no resistance among the few concerned nationalists whose unity rested on getting rid of the shackles of colonialism. Somalis are volatile, violent, and virulent when fighting among themselves and peaceful, graceful, and generous, when dealing with foreigners sharing equal thoughts and processes.

Somali volatility preceded the colonial administrations of Britain and Italy respectively. For centuries, tribal animosity and blood feuds have been the hallmarks of the unmarked greater Somali tribal territories where violence triggered by flimsy altercations led to unstoppable virulence spreading like wildfire and consequently consuming inhabitants of homesteads and kraals scattered countrywide. Periods of peace and prosperity allowed peripatetic nomads in search of pasture to traverse extensive territories and open a path for European explorers dedicated to charting avenues for future jingoistic imperialism followed by malevolent colonization. News of Somali valor and perseverance against European colonialism pilfered through Somalia’s southern neighbors Kenya, Uganda, and Tanzania resulting in the historical events that became known as Mau Mau, Maji Maji, and Hehe rebellions. To the Arabs of South Arabia, the message was simple and clear: “if Somalis are free, why not us”.

The first chapter of the book scrutinizes the near century of colonial governance where Somalia was divided along colonial powers England and Italy leading to the pitiless British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland mandates that resulted in the partition of Somali territories the same time leaders of the mighty African continent were engaged in struggles for self-determination. In making comparative investigations of the two distinct administrations, the author pinpoints the lugubrious nature of the Italian colonial administration and the noninterference of the British in the Somali social makeup. The Italians callously manipulated Somali sovereignty by imposing a variety of restrictions that were meant to dismantle existing Somali social structure.

Thus, the very authoritarian fabrics of Rome transcended the borders of Italy finally arriving as anarchical condiments in areas of the mighty African continent where Italian totalitarianism reigned supreme. Italy’s loss of Libya and Eritrea culminated in Italian ersatz imperialism to grab the agriculturally fertile southern Somalia territories straddling the meandering Juba and Shebelle rivers. Despite pilfering Somali natural and human resources for close to a century, colonial powers Britain and Italy did little to diffuse to the Somalis the virtues of democratic organization, authority and control, and the principle and conduct of governance. Naturally, Somalis are an egalitarian society and it is incomprehensible for the British and Italians to abandon Somalia without injecting an iota of reliable governance.

Perhaps, what southern Somalis inherited from the Italians is nothing but pasta di semola di grano duro and pasta di soia.And as for the northern Somalis, what they inherited from the British is nothing but the leaves of Camellia sinensis, otherwise known as tea that was introduced in East Africa by British barons who oversaw the cultivation of vast tracts of land around the White Highlands-land that straddles the lush green Rift Valley in Kenya. The Rift Valley originates in Jordan and ends in the lower Zambezi Valley of Mozambique in southern Africa.

Somali stiff resistance to colonialism paved the way for self-determination and complete independence for the northern British Somaliland and the southern Italian Somaliland territories that had been separated for quite some time. The proclamation of independence on the 1st of July, 1960 heralded an era of unification and the intermingling of two homogeneously related communities but ideologically clothed in contorted English and Italian administrative styles. The sudden separation from British and Italian apathy led the two Somalis to chart a new avenue for a honeymoon that would last less than a decade. Unfortunately, Africa’s first democratic government headquartered in Mogadishu-“the seat of the Shah”-crumbled after a coup d’état orchestrated by a group of military officers took the nation by surprise at a time when military leadership was a political fashion in Africa and some parts of Asia.  

There is a lot to learn from Ismail’s penmanship. The book is comprehensive in context as it dwells into the historical aspects of the collapse of the military junta in 1991 consequently plunging Somalia into myriads of problems that include foreign interference in the form of humanitarian missions, warlord supremacy, extremism and religious anarchy, tribal hostilities, maritime depletion, armed insurrections, prolonged droughts and environmental degradation, political obscurantism in almost every conceivable canton, piracy, assassinations, and the meteoric rise of Islamists.

If you are writing a paper for your college on Somalia or if you are in the process of preparing a thesis or dissertation that is exclusive to Somalia, the book, Governance: The Scourge and Hope of Somalia, is one important document you would want to consult and reference before embarking on your erudite and scholarly journey to academic success. Adding it to your exotic library for future use could be an added advantage.

Adan Makina
WardheerNews,
email: adan.makina@gmail.com 

Xasan Aadan Samatar iyo Sahra Axmed Jaamac iyo Heestii Seyloo

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nVl0mUuH0eE

A BOOK REVIEW: AMERICA HERE I COME: A SOMALI REFUGEE’S QUEST FOR HOPE, A MEMOIR BY HAMSE WARFA

January 1, 2015

By Adan Makina

If your actions inspire others to dream more, learn more, do more and become more, you are a leader- John Quincy Adams

Few in our age and time dare to write a book before retirement. However, one young man originally from Somalia put his time and effort by writing one in cosmopolitan America. The book, America: Here I come: A Somali Refugee’s Quest for Hope, by established Somali-American community leader, academic, blogger, essayist and author Hamse Warfa, is a memoir that is laden with profound historical narratives that pinpoint the author’s early childhood upbringing in beleaguered, impoverished, and war-ravaged Somalia located in the Horn of Africa. Beautifully crafted, the book’s top cover features the blue and red colors of the American flag which could also translate to the colors of the two most powerful rival political parties-Democratic and Republican respectively.

Roughly 261-pages and published by Sunshine Publishing, the book is a memoir of a kid from Somalia who grew up in the sprawling city of Mogadishu-a city that was once dubbed the “Pearl of Africa” and the “Cleanest City in Africa”. Surrounded by loving parents, brothers, and sisters, and affectionate friends and friendly neighbors, Hamse found what he cherished most in life: a decent education and leadership acumen in oecumenical America. While some foreigners may have harbored negative perceptions of Somalia of the olden days, the author succinctly explains the pleasure and splendor and the lively perfection that shrouded the peaceful Somali nation those days. Somalia of old was a worldly paradise where a few foreigners dared infiltrate because of the visa restrictions and because of the heavy presence of the military regime in every corner of the country.

In his heydays, nothing about the lavishes of life escaped these young author. He attended the best school, lived in the best neighborhood, and socialized with children of like caliber who were mostly from affluent neighborhoods and were sons and daughters of the Somali governing bureaucracy.

The collapse of the central government in 1991 followed by social transgression and fragmentation and the dissipation of governance brought about many huddles for Hamse and his extended family. There was monumental displacement of civilians, massive death and destruction mainly in Mogadishu and its environs, economic asphyxiation, political traducement, social divide as a result of tribalism and clannism, food and water shortages, and a host of other social ills that turned the once peacefully arranged tables upside down.

It was in neighboring Kenya that Hamse and his dedicated, entrepreneurial family became refugees. After making many frightful flights and daring escapes within Somalia mainly in the southern part of the country, Hamse and his family settled in Dadaab Refugee camp. In Dadaab, they encountered a life of living in tents under the scorching sun of Kenya’s North Eastern Province. Dadaab, the biggest refugee camp in the world, houses hundreds of thousands of refugees from Somalia, and a good number of South Sudanese who eventually relocated to Kakuma Refugee Camp in Turkana land. Climatologically, Daddaab is located in a hostile environment teaming with wild beasts, armed militants, rapists, cattle rustlers, and brigands.

Lacking the required facilities to sustain an expanding refugee population, Dadaab has long been an area of hostility predating Kenya’s independence. In the past, even before refugees started streaming in as a result of the civil war in Somalia that broke out in 1990 after the collapse of the central government in Mogadishu, Dadaab had its share of artificial absurdities that included tribal clashes, the Shifta insurgency, and repeated Kenya military operations.

The kids Hamse played with in harmony during peace times became fragmented and torn apart by a prolonged war that would continue for quarter a century. Driven by a destructive man-made whirlwind, a disproportionately destructive exodus ensued that ultimately sent the entire nation run berserk to various unspecified destinations globally. Each and every affected Somali suffered the brunt of the war. Some lost their entire livelihoods and became destitute within a short period of time; others lost their loved ones; while others opted to remain and be exposed to the horrors of raging wars and famine, disease, and displacement.

With the old adage ‘great leaders are born’ now replaced by ‘great leaders are made’, Hamse struggled tooth and nail in life to grab the best opportunities that came his way by climbing the ladder of success in leadership and entrepreneurship. Thus, with the opportunities he has in America, undoubtedly, the making of Hamse as a future leader, whether in Somalia or in the U.S., is obviously on course. Highly spirited Hamse went back to school in America to get the best education. Having obtained a master’s degree and then going uphill on wards on to enlisting in doctoral studies, a position that he is currently engrossed in, Hamse seems to be headed in the right direction in terms of leadership potential.
The author is a man with an iron will, dedicated, and determined to reap the benefits of hard work after many trials and tribulations. He has lectured in schools, partook in social activities, spoke in commemorations, assisted the elderly and needy, and above all, devoted a good portion of his spare time and energy to the upliftment of his struggling community mainly newly arriving Somali refugees setting base in America.

Without education, attaining the right leadership potential and catapulting to a higher status would have been impossible for the author of this book. Hamse’s leadership pursuit comes from emulating enlightening global great giants. With that in mind, I have the strongest conviction and belief that Hamse will remain a role model for many struggling Somali and African youth who wish to prosper locally, nationally, and internationally.

By Adan Makina
WardheerNews
Email: adan.makina@gmail.com

WOULD YOU?

October 9, 2014

By Hudhaifah Siyad

We always get moved by street kids’ life hustles, struggles and how they got neglected by their families, yet at most times people take no effort to help them. Actually most people want the street kids off the streets.
This poem is written from the perspective of a street kid.

If I were to take a minute and sit,
Sit next to you and narrate,
Narrate my being fro’ a lil script,
Would you like others Admit,
That I live a life of misfit?
If you were to see me cry,
The silent tear-less chocking cry,
Would you put a sorry across your face,
And brush the rest far from say?
Would you?

You would for sure, not care,
You would, like err’body in err’ corner,
Tap on the walls, if listening share,
You would, dare deny that not sincere.
If I were to fade away, go away,
Miles away, buried far away,
If I were to get away, escape away,
Would you take a minute, do away,
With all my worries, my take-aways?

Hudhaifah Siyad
Email:hudh2010@gmail.com

Landforms Story

October 4, 2014

By Luqman Makina

Editor’s Note: The writer of this essay is a 7th grader who is interested in  animal and physical sciences.

____________

It all started while I was hiking a trail in Colorado; I went up some rocks and kept going. I looked around to see where I was. It seemed like I was near a canyon. I kept going to see where I would end up. After a long while, I saw a small stream that looked like it was connected to a lake. I kept going to see where it would lead me. When I made it to the end, it was connected to a river which must have been connected to a larger body of water.

The next day, I went hiking some more to see what I would find. It seemed that the region was mostly made up of water. I went another way this time; this way went to a deserted area with a lot of sand. I looked around to observe the area. I found that the island where I was near was surrounded by water. I kept going and eventually saw a volcano. It was inactive though. As the time went by, I kept seeing all these different landforms.

Later on the day, I was hiking some more and saw that there was all this movement going on around me. There were animals interacting with each other. I saw all these different types of animals looking for food.

There were young animals running around interacting. Eventually I left and kept moving.

The next location I went to was a forest that was full of all these trees. I decided to look around and see what my relative location was. I was five trees to the left from the back entrance. As I looked around, I went a little further down and saw a valley. Near it was a mountain that stretched along the back of the valley. I decided to climb the mountain and see where I would end up.

The further I went around the island, the more landforms I saw. The next day I went to continue my hiking and found a beach. Along the shore were some eroded rocks which had been caused by movement of the ocean. The rocks kept going higher and higher and around until I was back where I had started. I went another path down to the other beach.

As I was walking, I went back to the forest and saw that there were animals running around looking for each other. There was a little fence that said it was made for the animals to be protected. This seemed like HEI which stands for Habitat Enhancement Initiative. I kept going and found another river except this one went into a bigger river. It must have been a tributary with the two rivers. At the end of the day, I went back home.

Luqman Makina

This article appeared on www.wardheernews.com 

Dimishiq: Magaalo Qaddiimi ah

Dimishiq, magaala madaxda Suuriya, waa magaalo taariikh dheer. Waxaa loo yaqaannaa "Luulkii Lama degaanka" (Pearl of the Desert). In kastoo lagu muransanyahay, dadka qaarkii waxay yiraahdaan waa halkii ay degganaayeen ummaddii Iram ee Qur'aanka ku sifeeyay "Irama daat al-Cimaad". Waxay lahaan jirtay xilligii Iram, daaro badan oo kolonyo ah oo safan.

Magaaladan waa magaalo qurux badan oo caan ku ah geedo, ubaxyo, iyo beero qurux badan. Sida ay taariikhda xuseyso, Dimishiq waxaa hormariyay dad kasoo hayaamay meelo kala duwan sida dhulka ku hareersan Badda Medhitereeniyanka, Koonfur-galbeed Aasiya, iyo gobollo ku dhow dhow.

Dimishiq waxaa soo maray boqortooyo kala nooc ah. Mar ayadaa gobollo kale qabsan jirtay marna ayadaa la qabsan jiray. Dagaalkii Labaad ee Dunida (1945-49) ayaa sii ba'an u baabi'yay guryo badan waxaana ka soo baxay dhul baaxad weyn oo bannaan ah oo loo rogay beero iyo dhul lagu indho doogsado.

Nebigeenna Suuban, Muxammad (SCW), asagoo la socdo adeerkiis Abuu Dhaalib, ayuu tegey Dimishiq. Quruxdii ay laheyd waagaasi waxaa ka soo warramay cag-ma-dhigihii reer Morooko ee la oran jiray Ibin Badhuudha sannadkii 1326. Waxaa uga sii horreeyay Ibin Jubeyr oo dul tegey magaaladani qaddiimiga ah sannadkii 1184. Sidoo kale, dhul mareenkii Reer Yurub ee la oran jiray Ludolph van Suchem, ayaa tegey Dimishiq runtiina wuxuu ku soo arkay qurux cajebisay.

Qoraagii Mareykanka ahaa marna shaactiroolaha ahaa ee la oran jiray Mark Twain ayaa asagana tegey Dimishiq sannadkii 1867 wuxuuna yiri, "wakhtigeeda laguma sifeeyo maalmo ama bilo, ee waxaa lagu sifeeyaa inta xukuumadood (boqortooyo) ee soo maray, qaar sare u kacay iyo qaar burburay" (fasiraad).

Xigasho/Tixraac

1. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150420/Damascus
2. http://www.musalla.org/Articles/Seerah/seerah7.htm

The Global War Between the Bearded and the Clean-Shaven

By Adan Makina

When men are most sure and arrogant they are commonly most mistaken, giving views to passion without that proper deliberation which alone can secure them from the grossest absurdities.  David Hume

There is a silent war being waged in every corner of the world between the bearded Jihadists who want to prevent the spread of what they refer to as “materialist western influences” in the areas they control or intend to liberate and the clean-shaven western leaders determined to democratize the world and usher in an atmosphere of tranquility and liberation. Most often, Jihadists refer to clean shaven men, regardless of faith, as womanish, irreligious, satanic, pagans, and selfish disbelievers. On the other hand, the clean-shaven western leaders see the bearded Jihadists as fundamentalists, uncompromising tyrants and terrorists, retrogressive and oppressive, and retarded religious addicts. When western powers arrest suspected Jihadists or terrorists, their first course of action is to shave the suspect’s beards ad infinitum before initiating any interrogations while the Jihadists force their western prisoners to grow beards, trim their moustaches, and if applicable, convert them to their faith. Today’s men are divided into the bearded, clean-shaven, bewhiskered, mustached, and balding and those with mutton-chops, side burns, facial plumage, dreadlocks, and other types of facial hair styles. In historical antiquity, unshaven men came to be regarded as ‘barbarians” which implied the “unbarbered” or appearing untidy.

The history of shaving stretches back to thousands of years when copper was first discovered by early man. Ancient Egyptians shaved their beards and heads-a fashion adopted by the Greeks and Romans and applied by their armies as a deterrent aimed at discouraging the enemy from grabbing their hair during hand-to-hand combat. Even to this day, modern armies supply the bulk of shaving razors to the men and women in uniform as dishevelment is considered as a betrayal of the strict military code of ethics and good conduct. A serviceman or servicewoman who is not in the right military fatigues may be described as “improperly dressed” and could be subjected to harsher penalties.

Scipio Africanus Major (236-183 B.C.), the conqueror of Hannibal in 202 B.C, was highly regarded and copied in the region of Rome for establishing innovative approaches to being clean-shaven. Around 50 B.C., Julius Caesar (101-44 B.C.) used tweezers to remove body hair on a daily basis. And in the 4th century B.C., Alexander the Great encouraged the shaving of facial hair. Aztec Indians of North and Central America and some Central African tribes shaved with razors made from the volcanic glass obsidian. Between 1096 and 1270, Europe opened its eyes to the luxuries of Middle Eastern life with novel costumes, traditions, and toiletries greatly impacting the crusades.

Men have been bearded since time immemorial. Egyptian Pharaohs wore fake goatees as a sign of holiness, nobility, and kingship. One explanation for the goatees worn by the pharaohs was that pharaohs were in charge of or responsible for leading the flock (the people) to the right directions. The idea of the Pharaohs wearing fake goatees may have its roots in the male goats popular in the Egyptian landscape of those days. Because the leading goat known as the “He-goat” or “Billy-goat”, is, as you would expect, accountable for leading the rest of the goats or flock, likewise, pharaohs symbolized the “Billy-goat” role by wearing goatees for the sake of leading the flock spiritually, politically, and economically. Furthermore, as archeology and past Egyptian antiquity relate, Pharaohs’ goatees were made from goat skin.  Even the female Pharaoh, Hatshepsut, is represented wearing a false beard. Most Pharaonic statues and sarcophaguses display drawings or carvings of Pharaohs with fake beards.

In Islam, according to the Sunnah (traditions), the mustache is to be trimmed and the beard left untouched though the beard has become a symbol to be scoffed at in modern times. Muslims are divided whether it is Haraam (prohibited) to shave the beard or Mustahabb (a good act), not to shave. Besides the beards, Muslims are encouraged to shave or trim pubic hair every 40 days as an act of hygiene. Muslim Sheikhs, Hindu Gurus, Sages, some Christian priests (depending on denomination), and Hasidic Rabbis keep beards as a sign of religious devotion and leadership. In Judaism, it is strictly forbidden to shave with a razor. The use of scissors which is double-bladed is preferred instead. The Book of Leviticus and the Book of Ezekiel have regulations on the shaving of the beard for priests. In some Jewish sects, there is a prohibition on the shaving of the corners of the head with particular emphasis on the marring of the corners of the beard for the priests. A practice known as tonsure, which is the cutting of hair from the scalp of clerics, devotees or holy people as an act of reproof of worldly sparkle and admiration, is common among Buddhist monks and novices, some Hindu temples, mystics and Christian churches.

The patriarch of the Eastern Orthodox Church is bearded. The head of the Russian Orthodox Church has full-blown beard. The founder of the Sikhism, Guru Nanak, was bearded and is revered by millions of followers. Sikh men are prohibited from shaving their beards. The head of the Egyptian Coptic Church, Bishop Shenouda III, the 117th, Pope and Patriarch of the See of St. Mark, is bearded. Some former Communist leaders like Karl Max, Vladimir I. Lenin, Ho Chi Minh, Fidel Castro, and Che Guevara, were all bearded. So was the Iranian revolutionary leader, Ayatollah Khomeini. Popular African leaders who were bearded include the former President of Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta, and Ethiopia’s former Emperor, Haile Selassie.

Of the 44 Presidents of the United States, the current President-elect included, only five were fully bearded.  They were Abraham Lincoln (though he was clean-shaven one time), Rutherford Hayes, General Ulysses Grant, James Garfield, and Benjamin Harrison. Statistically, 90 % or 94 million of American men over the age of 15 will shave 275 times per year or 20,000 times between the ages of 15 and 75.

With the advancement of razor technology, it is easier to trim and shave today than never before. The discovery of modern razors marshaled the era of the Wilkinson razor founded in London in 1772, and Gillette, founded in Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A, by King C. Gillette in 1901. Besides, the fabrication of these obsolete razors into modern hand-held electric and battery operated machines that rotate thousands of times a minute and the marvelous demonstration of some razors that sense and avoid cutting into skin, have, in the course of history, become a source of jubilation for women and men shavers and trimmers alike.

Paradoxically, materialism and the fervent inclination towards the clean-shaven cheeks philosophy has altered the profile of the beard and reduced it to a symbol of fear and ridicule. Nonetheless, since the 9/11 incident of 2001 that shook the United States and the simultaneous bombings of the U.S. Embassies in Dar es Salaam and Nairobi, security at major world airports have been tightened with much scrutiny and heightened focal points shifting to bearded men exhibiting suspicious activities and unintelligible languages. On the other hand, the Bali bombings of Indonesia, the recent 2008 Mumbai bombings in India and other subsequent terrorist activities in Afghanistan, Iraq, Somalia, and Pakistan, have, succinctly, created so many twists and turns in global security such that so many legal amendments aimed at curbing the spread of fanaticism and other forms of narcissistic tendencies that undermine peace, security, and democracy have been formulated by nations united in the fight against terrorism.

Despite global beard phobia, mustache and beard competitions draw great crowds every two years with the last attraction held in Brighton, England, on September 1, 2007-a prime example of how facial hair is grabbing international headlines. The next event will be hosted by the South Central Alaska Beard and Moustache Board and is scheduled to be held in Anchorage, Alaska, on May 23, 2009 with the Anchorage Convention and Visitors Board being in the list of major sponsors. Perhaps, every man who participates in this event will have one thing in mind: win a fabulous prize or trophy and emerge a world champion in the Guinness Book of Records.

Despite the splendor and glamour of the forthcoming Anchorage Beard and Moustache Competition, the war between the clean-shaven democratic leader and the bearded Jihadist will continue for an infinite period until the very moment when the conqueror and vanquished emerge after massive damage had been done and uncountable innocent lives lost. History has its eyes on when the Jihadist conqueror will, in the closing stages, force the vanquished clean-shaven western leader to grow beards once again or when the victorious clean-shaven western leader will clean-shave the subdued bearded Jihadist. This brings us to the conclusion that the war being fought between the Jihadist and the clean-shaven leader is nothing but ideological. It is a war of minds and a bitter struggle for the world’s dwindling resources. It is about territorial gains, natural resources, command of the seas, and influence of a wider scale.

Adan Makina
WardheerNews
E-Mail: adan.makina@gmail.com
__________

This article was previously published on WardheerNews, Dec 23, 2008 .

Public Policy and Social Change

When used effectively, public policy can be a powerful tool to effect social change. Changing how society lives requires thorough thought and reflection. Implementing social change also requires commitment to the cause, living up to expectations, getting the approval of society through communication, and monitoring the effects it will have on society. Because of the many failures associated with policymaking, policymakers have a responsibility to remain focused on how the policies they legislate impact society. Millions of dollars may be spent on a certain public policy yet fail to materialize in the end. 

Currently, the American society is watching with keen interest the contentious tax policy issues being debated by the line-up of party presidential hopefuls competing to win the race to the White House. While taxation is a way of generating the financial resources required to run a government, public resentment can at times lead to tax evasions that drain the national economy. With fair taxation, government can be assured that business owners will not flee with their money for safe keeping in foreign countries. It is a social responsibility when lawmakers ensure business owners feel at home.

Organizations that conduct business in foreign lands have a responsibility to protect the indigenous or local people they encounter. Exploiting the environment and then leaving it depleted is a big plunder that can have catastrophic effects on entire humanity. Overworking or underpaying the locals that do the hard work is against the foundations of public policy.

Having a reliable public policy in place means that the living conditions of society will be sustained, their level of education elevated, and their health needs put to the fore. Seeing policy networks become internationally accepted norms means that governments have now more responsibilities than ever before when it comes to meeting the demands of society. Policy networks are state-interest relations (Thatcher, 1998) and inter-organizational with informal approaches.

 References

Thatcher, M. (1998). The development of policy network analyses: From modest origins to overarching frameworks. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 10(4), 389–416.

Philosophy of Science

For a long time, a section of scientists have been in the forefront of confronting what fellow scientists perceived as the best approach to the philosophy of science. Science, being a broad subject according to one’s philosophical thoughts, has been undergoing constant changes such that diverse views and ideas exist among contemporary scientists who continue to challenge previous scientific settings. What Creswell (2009) perceives as ‘worldview’ is perceived by others as “paradigms, epistemologies and ontologies, or broadly conceived research methodologies” (p. 6). Philosophy of science (commensurability) pertains to anticipated implications, methods of applications, assumptions used, and foundations that stand as the basis for arguments. Where philosophy exists to clarify propositions and settle controversies surrounding the limitations of natural science (Gattei, 1995), science pursues the relevance of logic.

Epistemology, a branch of philosophy, is concerned with the “study of” and that it addresses questions such as: what is knowledge? How is it acquired? How can a given subject or entity be known? From the Greek word epistēmē, epistemology is concerned with analyzing the nature of knowledge by using justifications to come to the right answer. This is done in order to brush aside skepticisms. In essence, epistemology is the study of the theory of knowledge. Paradigm is used to show, point out, exhibit or expose distinct concepts in a scientific field. Likewise, paradigm can be used to delineate scientific disciplines at any given time. Ontology pertains to the philosophical study of the existence, reality, and nature of entities. 

References

Creswell, J. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Gattei, S. (1995). Karl Popper’s philosophy of science: Rationality without foundations. Routledge studies in the philosophy of science. ISBN 0-203-88719-0 Mater e-Book 

Tax Levy

Taxes levied by the government should not discourage work in any way and there should be little distortion as tax should be distributed fairly. Since the 1986 tax reform, there have been more than 1,500 changes to the tax code (Mankiw, 2009). It has been generally agreed that equity and efficiency are the two most important goals that drive the tax system. In the past, the major revenue for construction of highways and bridges came from gasoline taxes but because of inflation and enhanced fuel efficiency, there has been a drop in the effectiveness of the gas tax (Vincent, 2007). Such problems have led to states to finding unconventional funding for highway construction. In the states of California and Virginia, city planners and government officials foresee public-private partnerships as the best way to finance highway construction. This is done to advance efficiency and equity since public-private partnership in highway construction rests on two ideals: (1) that tapping private equity will increase the needed capital in the private sector and that (2) there is the belief that the private sector is more steadfast and competent than its public counterpart.

Economists have often referred to alcohol and tobacco taxes as Pigovian taxes, named after Arthur Pigou (1877-1959), because of the negative effects the two have on the human health or society at large. Corrective taxes are usually imposed by the government to discourage society from consuming alcohol and cigarettes to socially optimum level. Other than alcohol and cigarettes, corrective taxes may also apply to soda and to other activities such as vehicle exhaust emissions that are deemed to cause pollution. Usually, the government will tax activities that have negative externalities and subsidize activities showing signs of positive externalities. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for overseeing activities that cause harm to the environment. Governments impose corrective taxes on gasoline tax because of the need to reduce congestion, accidents, and environmental pollution.

Property owners pay property taxes at a given time frame or a given period every year. They fall under the corrective tax category. Since vehicle owners operate machinery that causes damage to the highways, imposing corrective taxes to repair or construct highways will be to their advantage. Education, social welfare, and highways received the biggest share of spending by local governments for the year 2005 (Mankiw, 2009). A tax benefit is like installing an energy efficient system in your home which in turn reduces energy consumption for a limited period. A tax benefit could be distortionary and have unintended consequences. An example of a distortionary tax is biodiesel which costs more to produce than the regular petroleum diesel. Modifications could be made to tax collection system and amount if they deemed beneficial to society.

References

Mankiw, N.G. (2009). Principles of Macroeconomics (5h ed.). Mason, OH: South-Western, Cengage Learning.

Vincent, K. (2007). Public private partnerships in highway infrastructure. Conference Papers-Western Political Science Association. Retrieved fromhttp://ehis.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=3778a080-1f0b-4ced-94b0-73c1197a72ee%40sessionmgr115&vid=2&hid=102 

Consequences of Raising Taxes or Reducing Expenditures

The survival of a government depends on the amount of taxes it collects from businesses and individuals that it protects or calls citizens. Raising taxes affects everyone as it reduces the amount of money one can own or have in possession. Raising taxes is common in any government as there is always the need to make changes to the monetary circulation a government can have. Governments raise taxes to stay on track and ensure the economy is in good shape. No government would like to be embroiled in simmering bankruptcy.

Raising taxes gives criminals leverage over control of commodities because contraband becomes commonplace as criminals move large quantities of hoarded commodities across territories to make hefty profits. Raising taxes does not replenish the public purse in anyway; instead it pushes economic activity away from the general market thus allowing buying and selling activities to become surreptitious. Consequently, commodities will end up underground in an environment that is far from the reach of legal authorities. According to Hyman (2011), the mention of tax in the U.S. brings a reflection of April 15 when federal and state income taxes become due. Taxation was so unpopular in the 19^th century United States such that it was impossible to administer (Hyman, 2011).

Raising taxes strangles consumer expenditure. People spend when they have money to spend. Taxing people means they have less money to spend. Raising taxes leads to reduced Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and also causes the economy to contract. On the other hand, reducing taxes allows the economy to grow. Tax increases can have negative consequences on employment. Taxing businesses and individuals can lead to budget cuts and layoffs. Reducing taxes allows employees to create more jobs.

A tax hike is bad for investment because businesses will be forced to pull out of markets. Those investing in stock markets will be compelled to cease competition because of the rising taxation that diminishes their investment power. Raising taxes is the gateway to increased crime and poverty. When the government raises taxes on the people, homelessness, evictions and foreclosures become commonplace and income diminishes and wages plummet. Reducing expenditures has its consequences. Governments, mainly those engaged in military confrontations, have been found to increase expenditure to counter rebellion (Collier, 2006).

Designing a Balanced Budget Amendment without Cutting Back Expenditures or Raising Taxes in an Economic Downturn

Balancing the budget has become a common phenomenon in the United States. Politicians often struggle to come up with measures that they think valuable in terms of avoiding economic downturns. When revenues equal expenditures and neither any sort of deficit nor surplus exist, economists see a balance in the budget. Using Keynesian economics, mainstream economics usually prefer a cyclical balanced budget which is balancing the budget cyclically or over the economic cycle and not necessarily budgeting year-to-year.

There are two clashing sides on budget issues: those who believe the government should raise taxes and those who believe the government should spend less. Balancing the budget is important for a government that wants to avoid overspending as it also places a check on official representatives who are fond of free spending. Without a balanced budget, politicians and agencies will be tempted to hide money belonging to the government. Money held secretly may be dispensed later for personal selfish gains by the same politicians and agencies. Balancing the budget helps the government to account for every penny and overcome rampant fraud and waste. Currently, the U.S. government is working on measures to reduce discretionary spending to jumpstart job creation and find skills for American workers. 

References

Collier, P. (2006). War and military expenditure in developing countries and their consequences for development. The Economics of Peace and Security Journal, 1(1), 10-14.

Hyman, D.N (2011). Public finance: A contemporary application of theory to policy (10^th ed.). South-Western, Cengage Learning. 

Local and StateTaxes

Getting rid of of local and state sales taxes and substituting them with uniform sales taxes such that it would become the prerogative of the federal government do the collection and subsequently give back to state governments in piecemeal would gradually set a wrong precedent and usher in centralization which is alien to democratic governance. The constitution of the United States has been crafted in such a way that states enjoy independence and freedom that allow them to run their affairs without federal government involvement and meddling.

According to Bowen, Haynes, and Rosentraub (2006), states spend tax dollars with the view of developing their economies in the fields of education, social and safety programs, and healthcare. Giving the federal government what would have been the prerogative of state governments would undermine infrastructural development and lower the living standards of citizens in all states. When states collect local and sales taxes, there is that sense of ease and competition and the tendency to prosper to a desired level.

Devolution of power, a significant model of governance that spreads power such that states enjoy the right to administer state public policies, is a vital tool for increasing state and local government responsibilities especially the formulation of local laws, and the delivery of goods and services without federal government involvement (Bae, 2008). State and local governments are more capable than the federal government in the delivery of goods and services to the local population. The closeness of state and local government to the people in need of goods and services and the efficiency of service delivery is one factor that cannot be ignored. States have a better role to play in local and state matters than the federal government.

Retail taxes are usually generated from individual purchases from sales transactions. A sales tax is a tax levied on a buyer when a product is purchased for its usefulness (Hyman, 2011). Retail taxes emerge during transactions. In essence, in the cause of transaction, the buyer acts as a government intermediary.

It would be futile to carry out representative and encompassing service stipulation to society from sales tax managed by a federal government. The impact from transferring such a tax to a central administration would be catastrophic for the national economy as their would be a lot of mismanagement, inconsistencies, and incongruities resulting from the transfer of sales tax management to a generally powerful jurisdiction such as the federal government in Washington, DC. The notion of democracy is based on the devolution of power and also separation of powers. This system allows local jurisdictions to craft streamlined systems that make their operations attainable in a manner that brings in satisfaction in the effective delivery of goods and services to the population inhabiting in that jurisdiction.

Transferring local and sales taxes to a central authority would undermine state development and lower human progress especially the social and economic sectors that will be severely impacted by mismanagement ultimately spearheading drastic decline in the effective delivery of goods and services. The notion of freedom that is enshrined in the constitution will also be undermined and the general national administration will be akin to authoritarianism as the state and local governments will be deprived of the rights and privileges enjoyed previously. There will be mismanagement of taxes as some states would receive better preferential treatment than others.

The men and women on the helm in the central headquarters will be driven by favoritisms and affection for states inclined to their political ideals and philosophical thoughts. There is no question that humans have inherent sense of irrationality and preferences for people of like mind and ideas. Any preferential treatment of a state over another state would result in massive migration of people seeking better opportunities and avoiding burdening taxation in their original areas of settlement. Taxation is a government monetary imposition that cause reduction to citizen finances and that is why many abhor it altogether. However, despite citizenry abhorrence of taxation, what is worth comprehending is the significance taxation has on human progress especially when jurisdictions resourcefully and effectively deliver goods and services as demanded without any lapse whatsoever. There are nations on this planet that are free of taxation. However, people pay more for services such as plethora of commodities, groceries, insurance premiums, diesel and gas, electrical and heating utilities, water and garbage collection, school tuition, and other amenities to supplement the missing taxation. 

It would be improper to tax people and redistribute from a government-managed central jurisdiction. This would place a strain on the progress of local and state jurisdictions. In a nutshell, local and state jurisdictions would be unable to make recommendations to the central authority and as well be unable to design a formality that would usher in progress and prosperity to their areas of jurisdictions. On the other hand, the central government would have a hard time making universally encompassing deliberations on tax dispositions in such an expansive nation like the United States.

Centralization of taxation has failed in many authoritarian and dictatorial regimes where hunger and starvation, abject poverty and underdevelopment are the norm. The decline of national infrastructure in undemocratic countries results from poor management of national revenues and other sources of finances. Gross injustices and political decline visible in undemocratic countries emanate from mishandling of the overall governing structures that is based on individual philosophical thoughts as opposed to uniform social deliberations and freedom of choice. Thus, centralization of taxation is inconsistent with modern governance.

Taxation handled by a single governing entity would accelerate a decline in people’s purchasing power. However, since not all jurisdictions share equal resources, the federal government would be tempted to impose hefty taxation on states and local jurisdictions that it finds having significant resources. Likewise, the federal government would put more emphasis on the development of the region having potential for resource production such as in the fields of petroleum, forestry, fisheries, industries, education, medicine and pharmaceutical products, and mineral extraction.

In 2009, the total revenue raised by state governments from sales tax was 30% (Hyman, 2011). Some states depend more on revenues generated from retail sales than others such as Washington which accounted for 63% of total tax collections in the year 2009. Sales and retail taxes are regressive in nature and they are higher for low-income tax-payers. E-commerce, a modern way of conducting business over the internet is gaining ground as consumers become more adept at using this innovative technology. In e-commerce, transactions are usually done between businesses to business where taxation is nonexistent. One problem with the state sales tax is that government and nonprofit organizations are exempted from taxation during transactions. The aging of society may also impact sales tax revenue in the near future.

According to Hyman (2011), retail sales taxes are the prerogative of local and state government and never administered by the federal government. This is already an answer to the question that drives this essay. It was first enacted in New York in the 1930s because there was desire for stable revenue source. In most local and state governments, the administrative costs of running a government are made possible by retail sales taxes. It would be extremely difficult for any local and state government to administer a jurisdiction without collecting state and local taxes. Thus, transferring these taxes to a central government for redistribution would undermine the effective administration of local and state governments.

 

References

 

Bae, S. (2008). Revenue, growth, structure and burden across state and local revenue sources: The impact of state budgetary rules.  Conference Papers-Midwestern Political Science Association. Department of Public Administration: San Francisco State University. 

Bowen, W.M., Haynes, M.E., & Rosentraub, M.S. (2006). Cities, tax revenues, and a state’s fiscal future: The value of major urban centers. Public Budgeting and Finance, 26 (1), 47-65. DOI: 10.1111/j.1540-5850.2006.00838.x.

Hyman, D. N. (2011). Public finance: A contemporary application of theory to policy (10^th ed.). 

Mason, OH: South-Western, Cengage Learning.