Comprehending Diverse Cultures in the Workplace

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America’s social makeup and way of life is changing day by day with the arrival of new immigrants having distinct religious practices. An important aspect that requires responsible administrators to have knowledge of is the religious beliefs of fellow workers. For example, some religious communities commemorate or celebrate special days or occasions that have not been included in the employer’s calendar. Leaders, regardless of religious or social upbringing, are required to be familiar with the religious needs of those under our command. It is good to listen to the religious views of even low-paid factory workers. Often, we hear of reports in the media regarding clash between employers and employees concerning disagreement over prayer and meditation needs.

In the US, religious tolerance got out of hand after the devastating 9/11 attack that shook the way of thinking of the ordinary American citizen. Mistaken identity has led to the fatal death of innocent civilians and reports of worker complaints regarding discrimination at work abound. Culture of hate and intolerance has manifested itself deeply in America (UNC, 2010). According to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948), every human being has the right to practice religion of choice without harassment from employer.

Administrators will need to study the various religious practices of those under their commands including their own so that they will be familiar with the many religious sects and their practices. Broadly speaking, leaders need to understand the major five religions of the world. Having knowledge of others’ beliefs is a tool to comprehending the needs of other fellow humans. One must not be surprised to see a fellow employee wearing a necklace made up of chicken bones, lion paws, shells, amulets, and other types of paraphernalia in the workplace. It will be unfair to challenge other people’s beliefs because it could result in legal ramifications and loss of own job. Understanding obligatory from supererogatory prayers will help remove misconceptions when determining allocation of prayer schedules.

Neal, L. S. & Corrigan, J. ((2010), Religious Intolerance in America, A Documentary, Retrieved from http://www.uncpress.unc.edu/browse/book_detail?title_id=1697

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml#a1

Leadership and Followership

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Though having diverse definitions, followership and leadership are two inseparable concepts of which the absence of one makes doing the job impossible. Followership may be defined as the art of following, listening, taking orders, emulating and identifying with a top figure who is there to inspire, motivate, and reward for successes. Followers are responsible for the success of any organization and that they follow guidelines set out by the leader and contained in guidelines and policies in the form of rules and regulations that may either be in publication form or through oral dictate.

On the other hand, leadership entails “the exercise of power” (Burke, 2011) and having the attributes of intellectual dimension, powerful ideas, an understanding of creativity and the meaning of life (Morris, 1997). With empathy and intense feeling for the follower, a leader stays in the forefront of overcoming turbulent conditions by changing gears. Leaders rely on others to take care of their meeting schedules, answer phones, and entertain their visitors in their absences (Blunt, 2008).

In the past I have been involved in many capacities as a leader, manager, or follower. Of all the jobs, in my experience, the leaders I found most incompetent were those lacking self-esteem and guarded by stalwartly men who walked insolently breathing threats without giving due respect to their followers. Informal leadership is leadership accorded to a person by other members of the organization. I identify myself with informal leadership. A leader, though not infallible, possesses characteristics not found in the manager and follower. However, whether the owner of an organization or a mere CEO, a leader is one who abides by the rules and regulations of the organization that he/she leads.

Pharaohs of Egypt wore fake goatees which implied that they were leaders in their own right just as the “He-goat”, “Billy-goat”, or “Male-goat” led the rest of the goat at all times regardless of whether the flock grazed, drove to pasture, or returned from a long day in the fields. The goatees worn by ancient pharaohs were made from goat skin. A look at the hieroglyphics on the walls of ancient Egyptian tombs is a testament to pharaonic living styles and their lively exposures as leaders. Consequently, today’s leaders are no different from those of the past despite difference in lifestyle and paraphernalia. Pharaohs of Egypt sipped wine from golden cups while modern CEOs dine on elegant tables surrounded by retinue of followers.

Burke, W. W. (2011). Organization Change: Theory and Practice. SAGE Publications, Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA.

Morris, T. (1997). If Aristotle Ran General Motors: The New Soul of Business. Henry Holt & Company, LLC, New York.

Blunt, R. (2008). The successes of leaders. Retrieved from http://govleaders.org/successes_print.htm

Leadership and Management: Similarities and Differences

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The task of a great leader is to get his people from where they are to where they have not been...Leaders must invoke alchemy of great vision. Those leaders who do not are ultimately judged failures, even though they may be popular at the moment-

Henry Kissinger

The terms “leadership” and “management”, according to many people's definitions, carry many connotations and is often used interchangeably in sentences and phrases (2009). In this essay, I will define leadership and management while endeavoring to highlight the main similarities and differences the two positions hold in societal and organizational levels. Depending on position of power, a leader is one, regardless of sex or gender, who sits on the top position of an institution or organization with the sole aim of motivating and inspiring a class of people working to achieve certain goals and objectives. Leadership, according to Blunt (2008), entails “...building value into the lives of others coming behind you, be they your colleagues at work or your young ones at home—or both”. Successful leadership in the 21st century, as elaborated by Hickman (1998), can be accomplished in any organization by ensuring the existence of maneuverability in times of adversity; offering exceptional quality customer service, capturing new ground and avenues, and gathering required resources.

Likewise, leadership is about inculcating diversity, injecting a sense of inspiration, enthusiasm, optimism, and commitment and finally, it is all about taking the mantle. Through hard work and determination and want of success, leaders act as role models by preparing followers for the long road to prosperity. Leaders are known for organizational reorientation, structural downsizing, meeting goals and deadlines. To be able to influence others, a leader must be full of energy. Clawson (2009) notes that “leadership is about managing energy, first in yourself and then in those around you”. Organizations usually experience dwindling performances because their leadership is likely to be weak.

The world of leadership has its own troubles especially when those at the top of the ladder jostle for power as was the case with Apple in 1983, when newcomer CEO John Sculley, former president of Pepsi-Cola, ran into disagreements with Steve Jobs, the legendary co-founder and Chairman of Apple (Bartol, 1991). Steve Jobs, the man in whose garage the first Apple computer was assembled, was forced to leave and pave way for the resuscitation of computer sales that had slumped nationally. Leaders use power to affect the behavior of others. At the same time they are endowed with legitimate power for controlling organizations and reward power to influence. Leaders usually apply coercive power to overcome those who fail to engage in desired behaviors. To be admired by others, leaders espouse referent power. Likewise they are endowed with expert power and information power.

Some variations in modern leadership include laissez-faire, transactional, and transformational styles. In Laissez-faire or passive leadership, the leader avoids responsibility. It is an aspect that implies self-management in which the leader shuns setting goals and clarification of expectations. Such a leader intervenes in organizational priorities only when problems occur. Transactional leadership involves a leader's demand for exceptional performance. This is a distinct leadership style where the leader is known to be observant of mistakes, irregularities, and performances (Renee, Frans, & Vasi, 2008). On the other hand, with keen observation and research on transformational leadership, Renee, Frans, & Vasi (2008), perceive transformational leadership to be all about idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration.

Management, on the other hand, is the art of “planning, organizing, and controlling a business activity” (Kroenke, 1992). Ricketts (2009) has a different description for management. To her, management is “to exercise executive, administrative, and supervisory direction of a group or organization”. Management is usually in charge of the supervision of either a homogeneous or heterogeneous workgroup. In homogenous workgroup, all employees are of the same level and mostly receive the same training and skills. In contrast, a heterogeneous workgroup involve varieties of roles and job descriptions. In essence, management enjoys inferior position of power and is responsible to the leader. By observing shared beliefs, traditions, values, and cultures specific to workers, work is reinforced under management guidance by observing workgroup norms.
Generally, management which is task-oriented requires knowledge of personal traits that include mastering of conceptual skills, technical skills, and human skills. Conceptual skill entails proficiency in certain types of jobs or activities. The ability to decipher ideas and concepts enable management to overcome barriers that hinder focusing on the big picture from a broader perspective. With a good understanding of technical skills, management is better-off rectifying technical and mechanical malfunctioning systems. Important paraphernalia for management is hands-on experience. Knowing how to fix defective industrial components help alleviate breakdown of company operations. If engaged by a software engineering firm, having an understanding of troubleshooting computer software is considered an added advantage for those wielding power in managerial positions. Also called “people skills”, human skills is the art of working with people to achieve required objectives. By working with people the manager remains alert at all times and aware of employees' needs and perspectives.

In conclusion, leadership and management are two powerful structures that exert considerable influence in the workplace. Management is responsible for producing order and consistency while leadership is specifically for the most part responsible for bringing in change and movement. Often, a leader is one who enjoys multiple roles, plays multiple games, has multiple characteristics, and serves multiple people for the sake of need of achievement. In government, heads of states employ visionary perspectives to attain levels of success and achieve desired goals. Burke (2011) contends that leaders are more personal while managers are more impersonal about goals. Regardless of the influential position of a leader, one thing is certain: having the necessary skills of management and being part of the workforce that make operations possible.

References

Article: Blunt, R. (2008). The Successes of Leaders. Retrieved from http://govleaders.org/successes_print.htm

Hickman, G. R. (1998). Leading Organizations: Perspectives for a New Era. SAGE Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.

Clawson, J. G. (2009). Level Three Leadership: Getting Below the Surface. Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle Rive, New Jersey.

Bartol, K. M. & Martin, D. C. (1991). Management. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.

Kroenke, D. (1992). Management Information Systems. Mitchell McGraw-Hill Inc., Watsonville, CA

Article: Eeden, V. & Cilliers, F. & Deventer V. V. (2008). Leadership Styles and Associated Personality Traits: Support for the Conceptualization of Transactional and Transformational Leadership. South African Journal of Psychology; Jun. 2008, Vol. 38 Issue 2, p253-267, 15p, 7

Article: Ricketts, K. G. (2009). Leadership vs. Management. Retrieved from http://www.ca.uky.edu/agc/pubs/elk1/elk1103/elk1103.pdf

Burke, W. W. (2011). Organization Change: Theory and Practice. SAGE Publications Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA.

Somali-Supreme Revolutionary Council: Harbinger for Social Injustice and Collapse of State Institutions

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"Little did we guess that what has been called the century of the common men would witness as its outstanding feature more men killing each other with greater facilities than any other five centuries together in the history of the world."
Winston Churchill-1945.

Abstract

This paper discusses the ethical and social justice issues that afflicted the Somali nation from 1969 to 1991 when the Somali-Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) acted as the only political revolutionary entity in the country. Two major aspects, ethics and social justice, that had been immensely undermined and abused by the state plunged the Somali nation into its current situation of statelessness. Ethics and social justice are two interrelated subjects that have been used interchangeably in legal matters and in social organization. In this period in time, Somalia, a country in the Horn Africa bordering Kenya, Ethiopia, Djibouti, the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, had been under the mercy of a brutal military regime headed by Major General Mohamed Siyad Barre. During SRC’s height of power the concepts of human rights, equality, justice, and liberty got trampled on by the revolutionary party thus affecting the lives of a homogeneous nation dominated primarily by peripatetic citizens whose livelihood depended on livestock raring.

Proclaiming independence and a pseudo-democracy in 1960, the first of its kind in Africa, after the merger of the northern British Somaliland protectorate and the southern Italian colony of Somaliland, Somalia’s political freedom worsened after a military takeover in 1969. Nine years into democratic rule, the political landscape tilted toward military rule with the sudden assassination of President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke. The subsequent coup d’état orchestrated by a junta comprising twenty-five military officers led to the dissolution of previous democratic

and parliamentary institutions. The demise of democratization and the rise of militarism gave birth to socio-political injustices that included tribal hegemony, political irredentism, nationalization of private institutions, superfluous corrupt practices, abuse of office, favoritisms and persecution of the clergy and political opponents. Sensing a power vacuum after the sudden departure of the assassinated president from the political spectrum, members of SRC resolved to massive sweeping operations that resulted in human rights violations. President Shermarke was gunned down by a close relative on October 15, 1969 while on a trip to the north of the country at Las Anod Airstrip (Mertz, 1992).

Despite the SRC spearheading massive militarization and improvement of state economic structures on a grand scale in its initial years of governance, the sudden turn of political events in the country accelerated the collapse of state institutions, disintegration of social equality, and decline of economic freedom. Unethical running of state institutions by corrupt military cadres primarily from the SRC and their immediate relatives who espoused militaristic and authoritarian leadership styles opened a path for an atmosphere of disobedience, distrust, and recalcitrance. The absence of obligation to the citizenry (Cooper, 2006) brought about conflicting loyalties or conflicting obligations remorselessly revolving into a state of virulence. In this case, the SRC was to blame for the justification of state tyranny and propagation of rampant corruption committed in its name by the state machinery.

Scientific Socialism: Unethical and a Social Injustice

Somalia’s new military leadership adapted scientific socialism, a system of authority akin to communism and borrowed from the amalgamation of the theories of Marx, Mao, Lenin, and Mussolini. According to Mendel (1966), as defined by Marx, scientific socialism implied “preaching in the garb of analysis”. Contrary to Islamic teachings and democratic values, committee members of the SRC claimed that scientific socialism was commensurate with Islamic values and thus epitomized the self-help principle defined in Somali as “iskaa wax u qabso”. The kind of socialism implemented by the SRC was in essence, as Flew (1995) put it in the words of Hayek (1976) “entirely empty and meaningless”. Upon taking the reins of power, SRC took to sweeping destructive measures that caused untold suffering to the mass. This included arbitrary arrests of influential figures of the former government who were imprisoned in the infamous underground dungeons scattered all over the country. The revolutionary council used the dreaded National Security Service (NSS) to harass and intimidate members of select tribes that were considered a threat to the revolutionary structure and national sovereignty. The head of the NSS was General Ahmed Suleiman who was the in-law of the president.

Killing Rampage

Public execution by firing squad of high-ranking public figures became common in Mogadishu. The execution by firing squad of ten Muslim scholars who denounced a presidential decree regarding the equality of women to men in Islamic law coincided with the United Nations General Assembly’s declaration of the International Women’s Year in 1975. Members of the ten executed scholars included Ali Hassan Warsame, Ali Jama Hersi, Adan Ali Hersi, Sheikh Ahmed Iman, Sheikh Ahmed Sheikh Mohamed, Hasan Issa Iley, Mohamed Siyaad Hersi, Sheikh Muse Yusuf, Saleeban Jama Mohamed, and Yasin Elmi Awl (Biyokulule, 2009). This hasty execution of religious scholars without legal justification put the SRC in political limbo with Muslim scholars especially those from Arab nations denouncing the killings as unjustified and without merit. Killing of opposition candidates and arrest of innocent civilians without legal representation was widespread such that thousands of educated elites sought refuge in neighboring countries, in the West, and in the Middle East.

Conflicting Loyalties

Censorship of publications that shed light on the regime’s poor performance became common. The government controlled what to read and what not to read. Xiddigta Oktoobar, a low-class newspaper consisting of a dozen pages and owned by the government, disseminated propaganda, presidential decrees, and other irrelevant materials emanating from the top leaders of the nation. The appalling human rights violations and excesses committed by SRC command forced the US, EU, and international human rights groups to call for sanctions and other military measures. The SRC’s obsession with communism and the nation’s leadership inclination to the Soviet Union inspired Somali leaders to brace shoulders with Russian, eastern European, Latin American, and Caribbean apparatchiks in Moscow, Havana, Berlin, and other communist hotspots respectively. Somalia switched sides by kicking out the Russians after the devastating 1977/78 war with Ethiopia over the Ogaden region. Somalia and Ethiopia fought over this predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region in a brutal war that took the lives of thousands of innocent civilians

and displayed perhaps an equal number. Prior to the escalation of hostilities with the regime in Addis Ababa, Somalia had the strongest army in black Africa. Regardless of its military might, Somalia's exhausted and poorly-armed army was no match for the heavily-armed amalgamation of Ethiopian, Russian, Cuban, and Communist South Yemeni forces. Despite capturing most of its intended territory from antagonistic Ethiopia that was under the tutelage of Mengistu Haile Miriam, the torchbearer of the Derg regime and instigator of the Red Terror inflicted heavy losses on the invading Somali Army and the Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) that was funded, armed, and directed from Mogadishu, Somalia's capital and seat of government. From the Ethiopian side, primary commanders of this devastating war included Mengistu Haile Miriam and his close confidant Aberra Haile Miriam assisted by Cold War allied commanders General Vasily

Petrov, a decorated World War II veteran and commander of the Soviet Army and Arnaldo Ochoa of Cuba. Major propagators from Somali side included Major General Mohamed Siyad Barre and his right-hand man Lieutenant General Muhammad Ali Samatar (Global Security, 1986). By the time the war ended, thousands of refugees from Ethiopia's occupied Ogaden region found themselves living in abject poverty in various refugee camps inside Somalia and relying on relief aid provided by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other international aid agencies.

After ending the political imbroglio with the USSR, Somalia turned to the United States for military and economic aid. To ensure America filled the vacuum left by the Soviets, Somalia gave the US unconditional use of its Russian-built port in the town of Berbera overlooking the Gulf of Aden. In the early years of 1984 and at the height of the Cold War, the US, after signing contract agreement with the Somali Ministry of Defense, succeeded overturning the declining shape of the decrepit port and the ramshackle airport, which, at that time was reputedly considered to have been the longest in Africa. According to the New York Times (1995), “aid declined drastically as allegations of human rights abuses rose”. Driven by the desire to obliterate civil disobedience and silence all sorts of conceivable rebellion, the SRC used Berbera runway to catapult jet fighters operated by hired South African mercenary pilots in 1988 to carryout carpet bombings against the embittered northern Isaac clans who were up in arms for the sole purposes of reclaiming self-determination.

Social Division

SRC committed social stratification that elevated a sector of society while suppressing those found not to be towing the line. Likewise, social disintegration, tribal divisions, economic strangulation, and unwarranted political obscurantisms rose exponentially in some areas like the northern and eastern provinces leaving a portion of the country cut out from the rest of the country. Such infringements on the rights of the individual Somali citizen retarded the nation’s economic status in the global economy ultimately leaving Somalia a pariah state lacking credible friends in the international community of nations. Under General Barre NGOs were prohibited (Marchal, Mubarak, Del Buono & Mozalillo, 2000) because they were considered as tools for hiding under clan umbrella. Barre’s clan dominated all sectors of the economy and the military. The president’s family enjoyed tremendous leverage over other clans in banking and other financial institutions such that members had fixed assets in the country and overseas trusts.

Aid earmarked for rejuvenating the nation’s dwindling economy and for the underprivileged class ended in the pockets of the tops echelons of the party. Instead of opening the nation to the world, SRC espoused a policy of allowing a few tribal members travel abroad for business trips, scholarships, and leisurely purposes. The department of immigration, headed by a close relative of the president issued passports through the use of favoritism and kinship ties. Selection of heads of diplomatic missions and consular office representatives depended not on applicant merit and reliability, but on factors related to subservience to the regime, closeness to a reputed figure, giving out bribes, or accepting party directives however unfavorable the terms may be.

Land Grabbing

Despite enjoying moderate climate and dependable arable land straddling the Juba and Shebelle rivers, Somalia became an aid dependent nation. The most corrupt nations enjoyed joint ventures with the regime’s top most fraudulent bureaucrats grabbing land belonging to poor riverine tribes living on the margins of the nation’s only two perennial rivers that fall to the south of the country. Nations that had vested livestock, fishing, veterinary, and agricultural interests included Italy, Libya, the former Soviet Union, and Romania. Somalita, a joint Somali-Italian agricultural enterprise enjoyed exclusive rights to farming in the southern fertile lands producing bananas on a wide scale. Regardless of Italy’s large scale agricultural produce in this part of Somalia, the area lacked basic infrastructure; towns were deficient in the acquisition of accessible water and sewerage systems; electricity was almost nonexistent; and the few existing medical facilities could not cope up with the spread of diseases.

Protracted Theft and Retarded Development

With the exception of the 500 km highway that connected Mogadishu to Kismayu in the south, the rest of the region was inaccessible especially during the rainy seasons when large tracts of land became flooded. The former Soviet Union unconditionally managed Las Kore Fishing Cannery in the east of the country. Much of the fishing produce was intended to feed Communist Russia’s explosive population leaving Somalia’s impoverished population with nothing except few employment opportunities. Despite Somalia having the longest coastline in Africa (Earth Trends, 2003), the ruling SRC failed rendering assistance to the few local fishermen fishing along Somalia’s 3898 km coastline to raise production. Fisherman plied the coastline using unreliable and dilapidated motorboats resulting in failure to meet consumer demands and consequently accelerating reduced fishing production. Instead, fishermen sold their catches to SOMALFISH, the only government industrial fishing monopoly in the country.

In another joint fishery cooperation known as SIADCO, Somalia and Iraq jointly operated four trawlers allowing Iraq to haul much of the Somali fish to Iraqi markets (Sonu, 1982). Despite generating millions of dollars from fishing and despite receiving millions of dollars in the form of grants and awards from friendly foreign governments, ordinary Somali citizens ended up receiving nothing in return to overturn the sorry state of the economy. In the absence of accountability, social justice, ethical considerations, and quality leadership, the feasible or tangible monetary gains generated from marine fishing ended up in private overseas accounts.

Another worthless joint venture known as RomSoma, a farming project implemented by the Government of Romania in cooperation with the Somali government, carried out low-level farming in the town of Balad, about 30 km from Mogadishu. This farming venture, according to Douthwaite (2003), applied endosulfan, a dangerous industrial chemical to eradicate the killer tsetse fly.

However, the result was reduction in bird incubation and disappearance of various bee species from the area. RomSoma and the repressive Somali regime may shoulder the blame for taking away agricultural lands that could have benefitted the residents of the town.

Recommendations

The SRC failed miserably in its political governance endeavors such that after twenty-one years of military rule, the country still remains in a condition described by the media and political scholars as ‘statelessness’. The problems created by the SRC could have been averted if the party followed constructively applied distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice. The lingering political divide in the country was spearheaded by the party in power whose ideals rested on authoritarian sacrifices. Party apparatchiks had the responsibility to prevail over the spread of social inequality and social inequity in the nation yet negligently left things to get out of hand. The elevation of some tribes over other tribes spearheaded hate and schisms of the greatest magnitude.

It is a requirement for top governing institutions willing to preserve national coherence to be fair and impartial when dealing with the ordinary citizen of the state. Those endowed with authority should take the lead and ensure equal and profound spread of ethical concepts and social justice without regard to race, creed, color, sex and gender, origin, and political and religious affiliation. The SRC could have achieved success in the workplace if it had paid

particular attention to fair social equity and social justice in the workplace. One other factor the party leadership would have scrutinized carefully entailed keeping an eye on procedural justice which is determining job allocations. Because of widespread abuse in the workplace and absence of interactional justice, Somalia under SRC became a place where human dignity was not given the worth it deserved.

Conclusion

Despite abundance of natural resources and untapped mineral wealth, the plethora of social injustices and unethical misdeeds perpetrated by the SRC eventually left the Somali nation succumb to poverty and destitution and prolonged reliance on foreign aid. The underlying recurring cycle of violence evident in the country since the fall of the central government in 1991 may be attributed to the past injustices perpetrated by the irresponsible SRC bureaucracy and its oligarchic revolutionaries that malevolently fleeced the economy for selfish paltry gains. The international community’s adamancy in restraining the erratic double dealings of the SRC and its misguided ideological principles gave Siyad Barre and his confidants to tread a path of irreversible destruction. Lack of practicable human rights, justice, liberty, and equality undermined the party’s struggle to impose level governance.

References

Metz, Helen C. (1992), Somalia: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.

Cooper, Terry L. (2006), The Responsible Administrator: An Approach to Ethics for the Administrative Role, Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA

Mendel, Arthur P. (1966), The Rise and Fall of “Scientific Socialism”, Foreign Affairs (October 1, 1966), retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=3cdbeebc-8efe-4904-ad9b-41b98fab57f2%40sessionmgr4&vid=4&hid=24

Flew, Anthony (1995), Socialism and ‘Social Justice, Journal of Libertarian Studies 11:2, retrieved from https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/11_2/11_2_2.pdf

Hayek, F. A. (1976), The Mirage of Social Justice, Vol. II, Law, Legislation and
Liberty, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, p. 97.

Biyo Kulule (2009), Somali Women Equal Inheritance, retrieved from http://www.biyokulule.com/Xeerka_Qoyska.htm

Global Security (1986), Why Ogaden War, retrieved from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1986/KCA.htm

James, George (1995), Somalia's Overthrown Dictator, Mohammed Siad Barre, Is Dead, Published: January 03, 1995, retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/03/obituaries/somalia-s-overthrown-dictator-mohammed-siad-barre-is-dead.html?src=pm

Marchal R., Mubarak J.A., Del Buono M., & Manzolillo D.L. (2000), Globalization and its Impact on Somalia, retrieved from http://www.mbali.info/doc346.htm

Douthwaite, R.J. (2003), Effects of drift sprays of endosulfan, applied for Tsetse-fly control, on breeding little bee-eaters in Somalia, Tropical Development and Research Institute, College House, Wrights Lane, London W8 5SJ, Great Britain, Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0143147186901030

U.S. Government Office (1982), Somalia: A Case Study, retrieved from http://www.marines.mil/news/publications/Documents/Somalia%20Study_3.pdf

Sonu, Sunee C. (1982), Office of International Fisheries Affairs, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Washington, DC, retrieved from http://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/mfr4412/mfr44124.pdf

Earth Trends Country Profiles (2003), Coastal and Marine Ecosystems-Somalia, retrieved from